LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



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Shelf JB-G-^l 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



''THE IRON FOUNDER" SUPPLEMENT. 

A Complete Illustrated Exposition of 

THE ART OF CASTING IN IRON 



COSrPRISlKG THE 

erection and management of cupolas, reverberator!' 
furnaces, blowers, dams, ladles, etc.; mixing cast 
iron; founding of chilled car-wheels; malle- 
able iron castings; foundry equipments 
and appliances; gear moulding machines; 
moulding machines; burning, chilling, 
softening; annealing; pouring and feed- 
ing; FOUNDRY MATERIALS; ADVANCED 
MOULDING; MEASUREMENT OF CASTINGS; 
WROUGHT IRON, STEEL, ETC. 

ALSO, 

THE FOUNDING OF STATUES; THE ART OF TAKING CASTS; 
PATTERN MODELLING; USEFUL FORMULAS AND TABLES. 



simpson Holland, 

Practical Moulder and Maitayer of Foundries; 
Author of •' The Iron Founder,' 1 '' etc. 

XUustrateO imtfj obtr ertuo %uu&reB ISngrnbings. 



FIRST EDITIO 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, 

53 East Tenth Street. 

1893. 




/ 



i3° 



8W 



Cop3'right, 1893, 

BY 

SIMPSON BOLLAND. 



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ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



INTRODUCTION. 



This book is intended by the author to complete the 
work begun in " The Iron Founder," for which reason it is 
called a " Supplement" to the former. Whilst "The Iron 
Founder" — as stated in the preface to said book — may in 
all respects be considered a moulder's book, for the reason 
that the subjects treated are directly in line with the 
manipulations called forth in the actual daily practice of 
the moulder, the "Supplement" embraces every other sub- 
ject concomitant with such practice, all of which it is 
essential that every moulder should possess some knowl- 
edge of, even if he does not aspire to the dignity of an 
expert in the whole art of moulding. 

The author realizes the difficulty of presenting these 
somewhat dry and matter-of-fact subjects in a manner 
calculated to command the attention of such as are not 
directly interested in foundry affairs, and his daily ex- 
perience in the foundry has convinced him that very 
few of the rank and file, even amongst moulders them 
selves, care to peruse the apparently tiresome pages of a 
book devoted exclusively to matters with which they are 
brought into daily contact. It has been his aim, therefore, 
to treat the various subjects in a manner somewhat dif- 
ferent to the methods usually adopted for the ordinary 
text-book, and by this means excite a healthy desire, if 
possible, for a more extended knowledge of what is herein 



IV 1NTR0D UCTION. 

attempted to be explained. At the same time care has 
been taken to avoid the introduction of anything that 
would in any sense detract from its worth as an element- 
ary treatise on such phases of the moulder's art as are 
duly shown forth in the table of contents. 

The all-important subject of " Mixing Cast Iron " is dis- 
cussed in these pages from a somewhat different stand- 
point to that usually taken. Foundry equipment and 
appliances receive special notice in detail, including a 
table of dimensions for ladles, and the latest application of 
machinery for moulding' as well as other purposes in the 
foundry. Melting in Cupolas and Reverberatory Furnaces 
occupies a prominent place in the book; and the original 
table of instructions for the management of cupolas will 
no doubt be appreciated by all who, for lack of time or a 
disinclination to ponder these subjects, are not in posses- 
sion of such data. 

The founding of "Chilled Car-wheels" is fully ex- 
plained and suitably illustrated, as also is the production 
of " Malleable-iron Castings," etc. 

The measurement of castings necessarily introduces 
some arithmetic, but knowing the antipathy usually mani- 
fested by those who unfortunately know little of these 
matters, the author has shorn it of all mystification, and, 
by a few practical illustrations, endeavored to make it 
sufficiently plain to be understood by any one who will 
make the effort, no matter how deficient his previous 
education may have been. 

Of late years the modeler and sculptor have been grad- 
ually establishing themselves as a part of our foundry 
system, and not a few of our modern structures are being 
supplied, internally and externally, with some elegant 
examples of art work in cast iron, which have been pro- 
duced at foundries heretofore engaged only on the ruder 
castings for construction. This lias brought us into close 



INTRODUCTION. V 

contact with a branch of the art hitherto considered ex- 
clusive, and entirely beyond the ordinary moulder's ability 
to produce; but the author knows, from personal experi- 
ence, that all such exclusiveness is fast disappearing, and, 
owing to the numerous inquiries he has received from 
many quarters asking for information upon these subjects, 
has deemed it wise to insert in these pages an account of 
the methods generally pursued in the art of " Statue 
Founding," as well as " Pattern Modelling," — in clay and 
wax, and "Taking Casts," — all of which are kindred sub- 
jects, a want of the knowledge of which has a depreciative 
effect on the moulders of the present day. 

Simpson Bolland. 
New York, November, 1893.. 



CONTENTS. 



PACK 

Evolution of the Iron Founder's Art 1 

Blast-blowers. A description of the several kinds of Blowing- 
engines used in the past, as well as some of those in use at 
the present day 13 

Mixing Cast Iron 22 

Foundry Cupolas. The Art of Melting Iron in them, with Table 
of full instructions for their erection and management 34 

Reverberatory or Air Furnaces. Their use for the purpose of 
melting Cast Iron fully explained. 55 

Casting One Hundred Tons of Cast Iron, showing the construc- 
tion and use of the necessary equipment for pouring heavy 
castings : Dams, Receivers, Air-furnaces, Ladles, with Table 
of Capacity of, Runners, etc 67 

Costings. How to obtain their Measurement and reckon their 
Weights; also, t lie Nature and Qualities of the Materials used 
in producing them. Percentage in the Foundry. Important 
Facts. Formulae. Tables, etc 81 

Foundry Appliances, including Block and Plate Methods of 
Moulding ; Gear Moulding by Machinery, and a description 
of some Modern Mouldiug-machines 126 

Chains. Beams. Slings. Hooks. Ropes, etc., for lifting aud han- 
dling all classes of work in the Foundry 15g 

Pouring, Flowing-off , and Feeding Castings 170 

Studs, Chanlets, and Anchors. How to Use aud how to Avoid 
using them 198 

High-class Moulding Explained by a description of different 
ways of moulding a Four-way Veulilatiug-shaft 216 

Sectional Moulding for Heavy Green-sand Work, including 
Draw-backs, Critical Green-sand Cores, etc., or some things 

beyond the Capacity of the Moulding-machine 233 

vii 



viil CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Hydraulic Cylinder-moulding under difficulties; or. Big Castings 

iu Little Foundries 250 

The Fowudiug of Statues in Iron aud Brouze. Explaining the 
C 'ire perdue and other processes; with a review of the Art 

as practised by the ancieuts aud up to the present time 261 

The Art of Taking Casts. Explaining the substances used : 
Plaster-of-Paris, Bees-wax, Dough, Bread-crumbs, Glue, 
etc. To take a Cast iu Metal from any small Animal, 
Insect, or Vegetable. To take a Cast in Plaster from a 
Person's Face. To take Casts from Medals. To take Casts 

in Isinglass, Elastic Moulds, etc 283 

Pattern-modelling in Clay , 289 

To Mould a Spiral Post 292 

The " Berlin " Fine Cast-iron Work 295 

Malleable Iron Castings. The processes of their manufacture 

explained, iucluding Annealing, Practical and Theoretical.. 296 
Chilled Car-wheels. Full instructions for Pattern, Mouldiug 
Flasks, Cores, Chills, Metal-mixing, Casting, Annealing, 
Testing, with an explanation of the Theory of Chilling 

Castings 307 

Fire-clays and Firebricks 321 

Gauister 323 

Graphite or Plumbago 324 

Fuel 325 

Annealing 328 

How to Repair Broken or Cracked Castings. The Foundry 
Methods of "Burning "all classes of work fully explained 

aud illustrated 329 

Beams of Cast Irou. Some of their properties described. Useful 

information relating thereto. 344 

Wrought or Malleable Irou. A brief description of its manu- 
facture from the Pig Iron. Refiuiug, Puddling, Shingling, 

etc 346 

Steel. How the different kinds are produced: Blister Steel, 
Shear Steel, Cast Steel, including Siemens-Martin, Besse- 
mer, etc 850 

Enamel for Heavy Castings, Pipes, etc 353 

Black Varnish for Ironwork 354 

Varnish for Pipes aud Ironwork 354 

Varnishes for Patterns 354 

Cemeut for Cast Irou 855 

Mineral Wool. The phenomena of its production explained. . . . 855 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

To distinguish Wrought and Cast Iron from Steel 856 

Turning 356 

New Tinniug Process 856 

Kustitieus Metal for Tiuuing 857 

Tin Plate, Crystallized 357 

To Tiu Iron Pots and other Domestic Articles 358 

To Tin Cast-iron Studs and Chaplets 358 

Case-hardening Cast Iron 358 

To Chill Cast Iron very hard 859 

To Soften Cast Iron 359 

To Scale, Clean, and Pickle Cast Iron 359 

To Remove Rust from Cast Iron 360 

To Scour Cast Iron, Ziuc, or Brass 860 

To Solder Gray Cast Iron 360 

To deposit Copper upon Cast Iron 361 

To Brouze Iron Castings 361 

Brassing Cast Iron 361 

Green Bronze on Iron Castings 362 

Bronze for Cast Iron, without the use of Metal or Alloy 362 

To Galvanize Gray-iron Castings 362 

To Galvanize Cast Iron through 363 

Japanning Castings, . 363 

To Enamel Cast Iron aud Hollow Ware 364 

Useful Interest Rules 365 

Interest Table 366 

Weights aud Measures 367 

Areas of Circles and Sides of Squares of Equal Area 372 

Wages Table 373 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT 



EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDER'S ART. 

The term "founding" is applied by many persons to all 
processes connected with the manufacture of articles in 
metal, whether the finished product has been forged from 
the malleable metal or cast in moulds. This generalization 
is entirely misleading, and it has made all the more difficult 
the work 'of placing the origin of iron-founding as an art. 
Iron-founding, in its proper sense, is the art of preparing 
moulds from plastic materials of such a nature as will suc- 
cessfully resist the intense heat of the molten iron,— as 
loam or sand,— in which may be formed the object to be 
produced in iron, the process being completed when the 
iron has been melted, run into the mould, and permitted to 
solidify. 

Of the antiquity of working in brass and iron, as well as 
the more precious metals, there is abundant evidence, in- 
cluding mentions of the subject in the earliest books of 
the Bible. That the iron of the Hebrew records was not 
cast iron is made to appear with much significance in 
Isaiah xlviii. 4 (supposed to be about 700 B.C.) : " Because 
I know thou art obstinate, and thy neck is an iron sinew/' 
— the latter word being a plain indication of the quality 
of toughness common to iron in a malleable condition. 
Further evidence in support of this hypothesis is found in 



2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Psalms cvii. 16: "For He hath broken the gates of brass 
and cut the bars of iron asunder." A marked distinction 
is here observed in the methods of spoliation : if the iron 
had not been malleable, there would have been no necessity 
for the cutting. Some knowledge of smelting iron must 
have been known to the ancients; otherwise neither Tubal- 
Cain nor his Hebrew successors could have accomplished 
the forged -iron work with which they are credited. 

An ancient method of smelting, still employed by the 
natives of India, is very simple and effective, probably the 
same as that used by the Israelites during their term of 
bondage in Egypt. On the whole, it is probable that, 
while malleable iron was in common use among the ancients, 
they were practically unacquainted with cast iron and its 
uses; and it is more than probable that the mention of 
iron sculpture by the Greek writers referred to objects 
which had been beaten out by hammering, and not cast in 
moulds, as was the case, undoubtedly, in their bronze work, 
the antiquity of the art of casting in bronze and the pre- 
cious metals being well established. The processes employed 
were probably similar to the cire-perdue process.* 

Much stress is laid on the statement of Pausanias (a.d. 
120) that Theodoras the Samian was the first to discover 
the art of casting in iron and making statues of it, about 
440 B.C. ; if he was, the secret must have died with him, 
there being no evidence of the art at that time extending 
beyond his island home in the Mediterranean. We must 
confess that the state of the mechanic arts then existing do 
not harmonize with probability in Pausanias's statement ; 
bscause to mould statues in cast iron would have demanded 
a knowledge of materials and a degree of skill very superior 

* Cire perdue (literally, lost wax). —A French term applied to the 
process of bronze casting, wherein the article to be cast is first mod- 
elled in wax ; the wax model being then inclosed in plastic clay, 
upon heating which the wax melts and runs out, leaving the mould. 



EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 3 

to and much more exacting than that to which statue- 
founders had hitherto been accustomed in the cire-perdue 
processes no doubt then prevalent. But further on he 
says, " To make statues of iron is most difficult and labori- 
ous;" from which we are almost tempted to believe that 
the noble islander did accomplish something of the kind, 
after all, and left the world no wiser as to the methods he 
pursued. 

As time advanced, a growing demand for implements of 
war, as well as for the more peaceful implements of agri- 
culture and other domestic arts, created the necessity for 
improved systems of producing malleable iron for such 
purposes. But about the early part of the sixteenth cen- 
tury larger furnaces for the manufacture of cast or pig 
iron were introduced in some parts of Europe, such iron 
being subsequently converted into malleable or wrought 
iron in' the forge-hearth. 

A patent was granted in England about the year 1544 
for a new process of making cast iron, but works written 
much later than this date make no mention of castings 
being made from this metal : which seems strange, when it 
is certain that castings had been made from the earliest 
ages from other metals and their alloys. About 1740, we 
are informed, iron cannon were successfully cast in the 
South of England by workmen who were afterwards taken 
across the Channel to teach the Frenchmen this new art. 
At this time there were very few furnaces that would pro- 
duce more than one ton of pig iron per day; consequently, 
where the foundry operations were of more than ordinary 
magnitude, a number of these miniature blast furnaces 
might have been seen at work together. 

Reaumur, the great French metallurgist, published in 
1722 an interesting account of the methods then practised 
by him. The remelting of the pig iron had previously 
been conducted in crucibles, but he conceived the idea of 



4 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

facilitating foundry operations by melting his metal in 
direct contact with the fuel, using for this purpose what 
may be taken as the forerunner of the cupola at present in 
use. A shaft was provided which fitted the top of the 
crucible, into which the iron and fuel were charged at the 
top in alternate layers; the blast, produced by two large 
blacksmith's bellows, was forced in at the lower end of the 
shaft, and maintained at a vigorous rate until the requisite 
quantity of iron was melted, after which the shaft was 
removed, the debris cleared away, and the crucible, con- 
taining the molten iron, was emptied into the moulds. 
From this we may date the beginning of modern foundiy 
methods. 

It was not till after Reaumur's death, in 1757, that these 
primitive cupolas came into anything like general use, 
though the itinerant founders of his day evidently were 
not slow to discover their practicability as portable furnaces. 
He thus ingeniously describes these tinker-founders : 
" There are founders who do nothing every day but to melt 
cast-iron and no other metal. Their number is not large, 
and I do not know whether there are more than one or two 
in Paris. These founders travel through the country, and 
make their appearance gradually in different provinces. 
They make cast-iron weights, plates for different purposes, 
cast new and patch old hollow-ware. These founders buy 
the pig iron they want from peddlers, who gather cast-iron 
scrap in the villages in the vicinity of Paris. This scrap 
is exchanged for apples; a man with scales in one hand, 
leading a horse laden with poor fruit, does the business, 
exchanging apples for iron, weight for weight." 

The "Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society 
of London for 1747, reviewing the art of making cast iron 
with pit-coal, and casting articles therefrom, — something 
which had been taking place, secretly, at the foundry of 
Abraham Darby, Colebrookclale, England, from 1713, — 



EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 5 

speaks of it as a curiosity. This enterprising gentleman 
hailed from Bristol, having leased the iron-works at Cole- 
brookdale in the year 1707, when it consisted of a single 
small furnace and foundry. Before locating at Colebrook- 
dale Mr. Darby had engaged as an apprentice a young 
Welsh shepherd named John Thomas, who accompanied 
his master and worked in the foundry. The lad observing 
the ineffectual attempts of a Dutch moulder, thought he 
saw the reasons for the man's failure, and was allowed to 
try his hand, the result being that with the assistance of 
his master an iron pot was successfully cast. A secret 
agreement was entered into between the two to keep the 
secret, which was loyally kept on the part of the boy, who 
was ever the friend of his master's family when, in after- 
life, they were sorely tried. The great secret of the whole 
process consisted in effectually leading away the gases 
generated in the core when the molten iron entered the 
mould, which, if left confined, must inevitably burst the 
core and £hus spoil the cast. Simple as this may seem at 
this day, the knowledge of making such casts in iron was 
so limited at that time that they were enabled to keep 
their secret for almost a century afterwards. 

Abraham Darby died 1717, when his new enterprise 
was in a flourishing condition, and was succeeded by his 
son, who was named after him ; and it was through the 
indefatigable exertions of the latter that coke instead of 
charcoal was finally used in smelting, about the year 17G0. 
Iron-founding received an impetus at this period of its 
history such as it had never before experienced. The 
steam-engine of Watt, coming into use at this time, devel- 
oped the iron manufactures at a wonderful rate, as by its 
means blast power was increased, and all rude contrivances, 
as blacksmith's bellows, and rotary machines driven by 
horses or oxen, which had been employed for creating blast 



6 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

in furnaces, were gradually abandoned in favor of the 
blowing engines driven by steam. 

Castings in iron for the early engines of Watt and Boul- 
ton were made at Colebrookdale, as were also those for the 
first cast-iron bridge, which was erected over the Severn, 
close to the works, by the third Abraham Darby, and 
opened for traffic in 1779. To meet the growing demands 
of this newly awakened industry the Darby firm had soon 
to open other works at Ketley and Horsehay, and branches 
of the same firm were established at Liverpool and Bristol; 
also, agencies for the disposal of machinery, manufactured 
by this firm for mining purposes, were opened at Truro 
and Newcastle. The renown of this pioneer foundry has 
spread throughout the world; their reputation as manu- 
facturers of modern machinery is only equalled by their 
perhaps greater renown as producers of the highest-class 
art work of every description in cast iron and bronze. The 
days of long ago are still forcibly indicated by relics which 
are. still treasured with the greatest care, although the 
works generally are for the greater part modern in arrange- 
ment and equipment. An old furnace may be seen on 
supporting beams, dated " 1658," and three others have 
" Abraham Darby 1777 " inscribed on them. One old 
foundry has a plate over the door with " 1774" on it, and 
they still retain possession of the old cylinder, 4 inches 
diameter and about 36 inches stroke, which originally be- 
longed to Trevethick's first locomotive. 

We can conceive of the difficulties attending the early 
efforts of our forefathers in the manipulation of such cast- 
ings as were needed by the pioneer engineers, whose de- 
mand for fine iron castings would steadily increase as the 
practicability of steam-power became manifest. About 
the year 1769 steam was universally, recognized as the 
chief motive power, and was gradually applied to all de- 
scriptions of machinery. No doubt failure often resulted 



EVOLUTION OF THE IBOX-FOUNDER'S ART. 7 

when trials were first made on castings of the nature re- 
quired. All this new work had to be done by moulders, 
who, necessarily without knowledge of the nature of mate- 
rials, must grope their way with absolutely nothing but 
hard and inexorable experience to guide them. Under 
such adverse circumstances there was no other way to 
success but hard endeavor; if a casting was bad, it was 
necessary to try again, and again if need be, hoping to 
discover the cause of failure and avoid next time the errors 
of preceding trials arising from ignorance of first prin- 
ciples. It is a lamentable fact that, although a century 
has since passed, the rank and file of moulders are to-day 
working on the same indefinite lines. 

The change from castings of a very ordinary type to the 
superior kinds required for steam- and blowing-engines, as 
well as machinery of all descriptions, which at this time 
was being rapidly changed from wood to iron, must have 
been almost bewildering, as nearly all parts of the engine, 
including crank, connecting-rod, and beam, were then 
made in cast iron, of elaborate design and intricate in the 
extreme. Good moulders must certainly have been every- 
where in great demand, especially such as were able to 
make castings that must of necessity be made in loam and 
dry sand. Examples of high-class moulding were set in 
those early days, which, with very few exceptions, have 
abided with us, unaltered, to this day. 

About this time the old devices for manufacturing 
woollen and cotton goods were supplanted by Arkwright's 
" throstle " and Crompton's spinning-mule, which in time 
were built up almost exclusively of cast iron. Wooden 
bridges began to disappear in all directions, and cast-iron 
structures were erected in their stead. The great Henry 
Cort, of Gosport, England, invented a method of rolling 
iron instead of hammering (1783), and from this event a 
demand for still another class of heavy castings was in- 



8 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

angurated; while later on, a 1 out 1807, paddles were intro- 
duced for the propulsion of ships, which called for superior 
castings suitable for marine engines. Subsequently, about 
1836, the screw-propeller usurped to some extent the 
unwieldy paddle, and with the advent of this remarkable 
device arose the finest example of moulding yet seen. 
That the iron-founders of the past were invariably equal 
to the occasion is eminently proved by-the casting of the 
screw-propeller, which to this day is moulded after plans 
discovered by our predecessors during the early days of 
steamboating. The advent of hydraulic machinery caused 
a demand for castings of such magnitude as to make the 
erection of special plants for the production of this class 
of work an absolute necessity. Improvements in agricul- 
tural and textile industries also demanded the erection of 
massive foundries, 

Up to thirty years ago very few of the improved 
methods of moulding now practised had been introduced in 
the foundries; nor had any one competent foundryman or 
engineer attempted to supplant the cumbrous and un- 
gainly equipments of the past by the very elegant and 
efficacious appliances now found in mammoth model foun- 
dries. The ponderous and slow wooden cranes have, by a 
gradual process of evolution, merged into machines of 
wonderful efficacy, and are now almost automatically con- 
trolled. The overhead trolley for conveying molten iron 
direct from the cupola to every part of ths foundry is an 
improvement on the old system of hand-carrying, necessi- 
tated by the magnitude of some foundries in which the 
distance from the cupola to the furthermost parts of the 
shop is great; and, where such devices cannot be applied 
conveniently, we see well-kept tracks with switches in 
every available direction, on which handy trucks, specially 
constructed for this purpose, are used for conveying, 
with ease and despatch, every material used in foundry 



EVOLUTION OF THE IRON- FOUNDER'S ART. 9 

operations. For the time honored wheelbarrows has been 
substituted the conveyer, which hauls everything to its 
destination entirely clear of the foundry floor. Where 
once all the iron and fuel were carried by hand to the 
cupola scaffold, we have now, in some places at least, 
elegant provision of either electric, steam, or hydraulic 
appliances for performing this work. The old rule-of- 
tliumb methods of charging the cupola have at last given 
place to the more sensible and economical system of weigh- 
ing all material in correct proportion. Attention has been 
given to many minor things also. We have seen even the 
riddle superseded first by the common upright screen and 
then by the swinging and sliding machine riddles, and 
now the revolving screen is to be seen in many foundries. 
Cleansing-mills, provided with an exhauster to carry off 
the dust, have superseded the primitive method of scrub- 
bing sand off the castings with stone and wire brush. 
Loam mills of infinite variety and degrees of effectiveness 
are to be seen, where once the click of the chopper was to 
be heard. Some of the modes devised for clamping to- 
gether the flasks, seen now almost everywhere, are in- 
genious in the extreme, and it is pleasing to observe how 
common at this time is Nasmyth's great invention, the 
geared ladle. Once it was thought that hay and straw 
rope must always be twisted in the primitive fashion; but 
this also has yielded to the spirit of invention, and the 
rope-spinning machine is throwing off bands, well spun 
and true. Machines too numerous to mention have been 
invented during the past thirty years, which, without the 
aid of a costly pattern, will make either spur, bevel, mitre, 
mortise, or worm wheels. The extraordinary progress of 
the cast-iron -pipe industry, with reference to equipment, 
has been such as to make that branch of moulding almost 
independent of skilled labor. The same may be said of 
many other classes of work where large quantities of 



10 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

duplicate castings are in demand, snch work being now 
produced in the several moulding-machines with a facility 
and dispatch impossible by the old methods of ramming 
by hand. 

The invention of plaster-blocks paved the way for the 
improved systems of plate-moulding which immediately 
succeeded them, introducing the interchangeable modes of 
flask-pairing and the earlier kinds of stripping-plates, the 
latter principle constituting the chief element of success 
in the modern moulding-machine. 

One of the greatest aids to modern founding is the 
system of tests, chemical and physical, to which in some 
firms the pig iron is subjected before it is charged into 
ihe cupola. When eminent chemists inform us that what- 
ever quality of iron the iron-founder demands can be 
furnished by the furnace manager, it would seem that it 
only remains for the foundryman to acquire such chemical 
knowledge as will enable him to know the exact measure 
of every element needed to produce the desired quality of 
iron, and thus, by chemical analysis, determine all his mix- 
tures. Keep's tests are no doubt the most comprehensive 
of any of the physical tests for this purpose which have 
yet appeared, as they embrace every element necessary for 
discovering the nature and quality of cast iron. 

At present we seem to be on the eve of great changes ; 
and it is somewhat difficult and hazardous to predict the 
channels which future progress in iron-founding will take. 
Owing to the system of dividing labor, now becoming so 
prevalent, it is simply impossible for the ordinary work- 
man to master the details of founding: this, coupled with 
general lack of education, leaves him, in a measure, in- 
competent to manage even ordinary establishments intelli- 
gently; but how utterly incompetent are such men for 
becoming heads of the magnificently equipped foundries 
now being constructed! To operate such establishments 



EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 11 

it has been thought advisable by some to change the 
order somewhat, and engage the services of an educated 
engineer, so that the efforts of the foreman moulder shall 
be directed in paths which run in harmony with known 
physical laws. 

When so much has been accomplished by the uneducated 
founder in the past, what are we entitled to expect in the 
future from this added intelligence? Time will show. 
The age is pregnant with ideas. The full blaze of scientific 
knowledge is lighting up dark and hitherto mysterious 
nooks in which nature has hidden many precious secrets. 
To suppose that the useful and noble art of iron-founding 
will not share in the riches thus lavishly obtained would 
be to rank it as among the least progressive of the me- 
chanic arts: whereas recent advances show that it is no 
longer wedded to ancient ideas and methods, but is eager 
to embrace any and all sound improvement. 

The consideration of the possibilities in foundry practice 
forces itself upon the attention of practical men who now 
thoroughly understand these possibilities. Indifference 
is giving way to active research and investigation, with 
reference to the supply of suitable material and equipment. 
Schools of technology will yet be brought to see the im- 
portance of giving the foundry more substantial recogni- 
tion. One of the best modern moulding-machines owes its 
origin to experiments, conducted by its inventor, in the 
foundry of the Stevens Institute, — a fact which might be 
profitably borne in mind by the faculties of other technical 
schools, which, as a rule, are wofully deficient in means 
for teaching the art of founding. 

The introduction of some late inventions for melting 
iron indicates the march of progress in this particular very 
forcibly. Every effort is now put forth to prevent the 
immense waste of heat which occurs in ordinary cupola 
melting, by a disposition of the tuyeres such as will burn 



12 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the ascending combustible gases without heating the fuel 
to incandescence, in which instance the developed heat 
preheats the iron and fuel before it reaches the melting 
zone. What may we not expect in the prevention of heat- 
waste when we find that electricity has at last been suc- 
cessfully applied for melting cast iron ? It is claimed for 
the " Taussig" electric system of melting cast iron in ex- 
hausted chambers that oxidation and creation of air bub- 
bles are avoided, and that the cost for driving the dynamos 
is 50 per cent less than would ordinarily be required for 
melting by the best practice. 

The advent of the chemist in the foundry marks a new 
era in iron-founding, and is perhaps the surest indication 
of a desire for thorough advancement, as by his aid the 
indecision and doubt hitherto existing must ultimately 
cease. Mixing of different brands of cast iron, as well as 
the alloying of cast iron with other metals, to obtain a 
higher degree of homogeneity, or any other special quality 
in the resultant casting, will, under such qualified direc- 
tion, be more easy of accomplishment. 

Given superior direction, we may confidently anticipate 
the time when, by the united efforts of the scholar and the 
trained artisan, the art of iron-founding, in neither equip- 
ment nor skill, shall be second to any of the iron indus- 
tries. 



BLAST. BLOWERS. 13 



BLAST. BLOWERS. 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF BLOWING- 
ENGINES USED IN THE PAST, AS WELL AS SOME OF 
THOSE IN USE AT THE PRESENT DAY. 

Blowing-machines, as applied in the foundry, are all 
such as are made to produce a current of air to assist the 
combustion within the cupola, etc. 

There is no doubt of the common bellows of to-day 
being about as old a contrivance for this purpose as can be 
found anywhere. 

The Catalan forges of some parts of Europe furnish an 
interesting example of a blowing-machine called a 'Tromp.' 
One great objection to its use is that it can only be em- 
ployed where it is convenient to provide a fall of some 
yards of water. The reservoir above has a plug in the 
bottom, which fits a conical-shaped hole connecting wi-th a 
wooden pipe extending down to the wind-chest below. 
The water, by means of sloping holes provided at the top 
of the pipe, carries air down with it. The wind-chest, 
shown in article " Melting Cast Iron in Cupolas," is pro- 
vided with holes, one for the water to pass away, and the 
other, connecting with the nozzle-pipe, permits the air to 
escape in that direction. The water as it falls strikes a 
platform set there to receive it, the effect of which is to 
separate the air from the water. The height of drop deter- 
mines the strength of the blast. 

Another form of blower that has found favor in times 
past is two wooden boxes with open sides, and made to 
slip one over the other. The blast is produced by moving 
the upper enclosing box up and down over the other, and 



14 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




BLAST. BLOWERS. 15 

may be hinged for an easier motion. The lower box is 
provided with a valve opening inwards, and has a nozzle 
attached. 

A very simple form of bellows is made by the Chinese, 
which resembles the blowing-engine very much in its ac- 
tion. It is composed of a long square box, provided with 
a piston which fits all its sides, and a nozzle at the closed 
end. When the piston is pulled from the nozzle it opens 
valves to admit the air, but as soon as the movement is 
reversed the valves close and the air escapes at the nozzle. 

Fan-blowers seem to have been in use about 1729, or 
perhaps before, as one Teral is supposed to have in- 
vented one about that time. Smeaton erected blowing- 
engines at the Carron Ironworks in 1760; and it would 
seem that most all the first of the modern blowing- 
machines were composed of cylinders having pistons, all 
varying more or less in the application of the power to 
drive them and obtain a steady current of air. A blast- 
machine common in times past was two cylinders con- 
nected, one of which was provided with a discharge-pipe. 
The first downward stroke of piston number one drives 
the air into cylinder number two through a valve in the 
foot-box, which rises with the pressure; simultaneously 
with the movement downwards of piston number one, 
piston number two ascends as far as it may be forced, 
when it immediately returns, shutting the valve and forc- 
ing the air through the discharge-pipe, Avhile piston num- 
ber one ascends, filling the cylinder with air, which is 
again driven into cylinder number two and ejected as in 
the first instance, etc. 

The cylinder and piston type of blowing-engines prevail 
in nearly all the blast furnace systems. At first they were 
made to force the blast with every alternate motion of the 
piston, and when a number of these were attached to the 
same crank-shaft run by a water-wheel they succeeded in 



16 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Fig. 2. — The Sturtevant Steel Pressure-blower Blast-wheel, 



BLAST. BLOWERS. 17 

producing a steadier pressure than was possible with only 
one cylinder. 

The water-wheel has now been superseded by steam at 
most places, some preferring to have steam and blast cyl- 
inder in line on one bed horizontally, with both pistons on 
the same rod, and others favoring the same principle ap- 
plied vertically. The very large engines, however, are 
invariably operated by a steam and blast cylinder on op- 
posite ends of the same bed, vertically, with a beam to 
connect their pistons. 

Fan-blast machines are now employed in many found- 
ries. The common form of fan consists of three or more 
spokes of a rimless wheel, tipped with vanes, and made 
to rotate in a cylindrical chest. There are openings on 
both sides round the spindle for the admission of air, 
which, sucked in by the centrifugal action of the fan as it 
quickly rotates, flows towards the vanes, and is driven 
through an exit pipe attached to another part of the 
cylinder. 

There are numerous varieties of these engines, which 
latter have become subjects for the exercise of the in- 
genuity of modern inventors in this line. 

The compound blowing-fan of Schiele's consists of two 
fans combined on the same shaft so as to act successively 
on the same air. By the first the air is driven into a 
chamber between the fans at a pressure of 6 ounces; the 
second receives the air at this pressure, and by further 
compression delivers the same into the furnace at a press- 
ure of 12 ounces per square inch. 

The Sturtevant pressure-blower, Fig. 1, has sjioked 
wheels, Figs. 2 and 3, having conical annular disks, mounted 
on an axis, Fig. 3, driven by two belts, to prevent any ten- 
dency to wobbling. The air enters between the spokes 
round the axis, and is driven forcibly by the curved floats, 
which span the space between the annular disks, being 



18 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Fig. 3.— The Sturtevant Steel Pressure-blower Journal-bearing. 



BLAST. BLOWERS. 



19 



discharged into a peripheral receiving-chamber, whence it 
reaches the eduction-pipe. 

The Mackenzie pressure-blower, Fig. 4, is in common 
use in this country as well as in Europe. The blades are 
attached to fan boxes which revolve on a fixed centre shaft. 
Motion is imparted to them by means of a cylinder, to 




Section of Mackenzie Blower. 



which are attached the driving-pulleys. Half rolls in the 
cylinder act as guides for the blades, allowing them to 
work smoothly in and out as the cylinder revolves. At 
each revolution the entire space back of the cylinder, be- 
tween two blades, is filled and emptied three times. 

Other rotary blowers are on the principle of the rotary 
pump or rotary engine, having two portions which revolve 
in apposition. 

Root's pressure-blower, Fig. 5, is similar in principle to 
the foregoing; it acts by regular displacement of the 'air 



20 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




BLAST. BLOWERS. 21 

at each revolution. A pair of horizontal shafts, geared 
together at both ends, traverse a case of the form of two 
semi-cylinders, Fig. 6, separated by a rectangle equal in 
depth to the diameter of the semi-cylinders, and in width 
to the distance between the centres of the shafts. These 
shafts carry a pair of solid arms, each having a section 
somewhat resembling a figure of eight, the action of 
which as they revolve takes the air in by an aperture at 




Fig. 6. 

the bottom of the machine, and expels it with consider- 
able pressure, if required, at the top. 

The 'Steam Jet' is another form of blower now fre- 
quently adopted, but may with more correctness be de- 
scribed as a substitute for the blower. 

' Herbertz's Steam Jet Cupola ' works by means of at- 
mospheric air breathed or sucked into the furnace by a jet 
of steam placed in the upper part of the shaft. This 
cupola requires no motive force, and the vacuum produced 
in the shaft by the suction allows every stage of the smelt- 
ing process to be observed by the means of valves and 
tubes placed at different heights, thereby furnishing a 
convenient means of controlling the work. 



22 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



MIXING CAST IRON. 

It is the business of the iron-founder to produce castings 
which will best meet all of the numerous demands — fine- 
ness combined with hardness, fineness combined with soft- 
ness, strength to resist pressures and strains, etc. 

He must also be able, by a judicious selection of different 
brands of iron, to produce mixtures which will meet the 
almost impossible demands created by faults in construc- 
tion, as well as the countless conditions which, owing to 
the nature of the case, are imperative, and can only be met 
successfully by correct mixtures. 

Now, is it not true that these emergencies are met, in a 
great majority of cases, by the merest chance, and not un- 
til after great loss has been sustained from repeated ex- 
perimenting is success achieved ? And, be it remembered, 
such success is at best only partial, for owing to the lack 
of correct data the whole experience must inevitably be re- 
peated whenever the emergency again presents itself. 

I would ask, What guide has the founder ever had ordi- 
narily, other than the bare statement that No. 1 iron is all 
such as shows large crystals, smooth and bright, soft al- 
most to sponginess in some cases, and that all such irons 
are to be chosen for use in the production of light castings; 
whilst No. 2 is to be recognized as being lighter in color, 
and to have smaller crystals than No. 1, eminently adapted 
for general work, machinery castings, etc. ; and again, that 
No. 3 is all such iron as shows a greater density than No. 2, 
with a slight mottle indicated, and that this latter is to be 
used for the heaviest work? 



MIXING CAST IRON. 23 

This, strange as it may seem, is about all that the average 
founder knows about cast iron. Is it any wonder that so 
many blunders are made ? 

It is no uncommon thing to hear of some founder who 
has met with a difficulty, caused by a too free use of No. 1 
iron, trying to overcome the same by making still further 
additions to his mixture of the same brand, — this because of 
the generally accepted idea that No. 1 iron is the panacea 
for all evils of whatever nature. 

Such a person, wise in his own conceit, would ridicule 
the idea of overcoming his difficulty by means directly op- 
posite to those he was pursuing; nevertheless, such a course 
would in all probability be the only one to take if success 
is to be assured. 

Not unfrequently, when I have failed to obtain a degree 
of softness which was satisfactory by the use of No. 1 irons, 
I have had no difficulty whatever when No. 2 of a different 
brand has been substituted, and it has been no uncommon 
thing in my experience to discover that the scrap-pile con- 
tained the most valuable stock in hand: in fact, I know of 
one foundry in particular where strictly assorted scrap is 
used almost exclusively, with very excellent results; but 
that is because of the superior knowledge of the foreman, 
who has devoted himself to the study of such matters. 

It will not be out of place just here to relate an experi 
ence of my own which bears directly upon this subject. 

Some years ago I was called upon to take charge of a 
foundry where they had been experiencing considerable 
trouble with their iron. Castings innumerable were being 
rejected owing to their extreme hardness, and it had be- 
come imperative that steps be taken to check by some 
means the enormous losses they were sustaining. 

Close at hand was found a stack of No. 3 pig iron which 
had long been voted useless; this was Hanked by an un- 
sightly mass of promiscuous scrap, which under the circum- 



24 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

stances it was considered impossible to use. In addition 
to all this, I was shown another pile of scrap, remote from 
the foundry, which represented the accumulations of years, 
and footed up to the respectable sum of about 400 tons. 

It was not long before I discovered what had caused this 
extraordinary waste, one chief cause being that the mix- 
tures were arranged by one of the officials in the office, 
whose only claim to distinction in that line of business 
arose from the fact that he had. in some remote period of 
his life, held a minor position at a smelting-furnace. His 
method was to take portions of the several brands, either 
alone or in varying mixture, and make a crucible test of a 
very limited kind, and from such tests a formula was made 
out for the guidance of the foreman, with the result as 
above stated. 

To overcome these evils recourse was had to very strin- 
gent measures: the services of the quondam mixer were 
dispensed with at once, and those of a metallurgical chem- 
ist engaged, by the aid of whom I was enabled in six 
months to use up every pound of this so-called obnoxious 
iron, to the great satisfaction of my employer, from whom 
I received the highest encomiums. 

I would here observe that there was no " Scotch " or No. 
1 irons used to effect this result. After a careful analysis 
had been made of all the irons on hand, and their natures 
distinctly noted, suitable mixtures for the various kinds of 
work were made, and all upon a strictly chemical basis, 
with astonishingly successful results. 

The medium through which all this was accomplished 
was a brand of iron (on hand) which was exceedingly high 
in silicon, and it was the wonderful results produced by its 
agency on this occasion which changed all my cherished 
ideas in regard to mixing of metals on the old lines. 

My firm conviction now is that the mixing of irons can- 
not be intelligently carried on unless chemical analysis 



MIXINO CAST IRON. 2o 

forms the basis of procedure; and before attempting to give 
any absolute data for the guidance of others in the mixing 
of irons by this method, I would ask the reader to look to 
me, not as a master in these matters, but as a student who 
has just touched on the edge of a new truth and desires 
that others equally interested may share in the discovery. 

Mr. Turner, demonstrator of chemistry, Mason College, 
says: " (1) Pure cast iron — i.e., iron and carbon only — even 
if obtainable, would not be the most suitable material for 
use in the foundry; (2) that cast iron containing excessive 
amounts of other constituents is equally unsuitable for 
foundry purposes; (3) that the ill effects of one constituent 
can at best be only imperfectly neutralized by the addi- 
tion of another constituent; (4) that there is a suitable 
proportion for each constituent present in cast iron. This 
proportion depends upon the character of the product which 
is desired, and upon the proportion of other elements pres- 
ent; (5) that variations in the proportion of silicon afford 
a trustworthy and inexpensive means of producing a cast- 
iron of any required mechanical character which is possible 
with the material employed." 

In support of the fifth clause, relating to silicon, we 
quote from William Kent, in American Machinist, Feb- 
ruary 20th, 1890, where he says that " Mr. Charles Wood 
claims for himself, assisted by Mr. Stead, the discovery 
that silicon had the power of reducing the combined car- 
bon into uncombined carbon, or, in other words, to convert 
white iron into gray iron." Experiments made at numer- 
ous foundries in France had completely established the 
fact, and confirmed the statements made by Mr. AVood. 

The custom of purchasing irons by their fracture, Mr. 
Wood said, in order to obtain sound castings, was a great 
mistake and must be abandoned. He admitted that hither- 
to it had been the only practical system known, and that 
founders in order to make soft castings had always gone to 



26 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Scotch No. 1 or like rich brands to mix with other qualities 
in order to produce this result; but he had shown that the 
commonest iron, such as mottled and white, could be re- 
duced to any degree of softness by a proper mixture of sil- 
icon iron ; and an iron-founder by following this rule, and 
studying analysis of the irons at his command, could now 
produce in his cupola the exact quality of iron most suit- 
able to his castings, instead of as hitherto depending upon 
special and expensive brands, which were often very un- 
certain in producing what was required, although the frac- 
ture might be all that was desired, whilst the only explana- 
tion was to be found in analysis. 

Such evidence, coupled with personal observation and 
constant practice, forces us to the conclusion that a new 
era is dawning upon us in so far as relates to this subject, 
and already do we notice astonishing results from the adop- 
tion of the method of chemical analysis in the production 
of cast-iron car- wheels. We quote from the same authority, 
who says: "Some years ago it was thought that only 
'Hanging Rock' or 'Salisbury' cold-blast charcoal irons 
were good enough for car-wheels, and these irons brought 
very much higher prices than other irons. The chemists 
at length discovered that the peculiar characteristic was 
that they were lower in silicon than hot-blast and coke 
irons, and reasoned therefrom: (1) that if other irons 
could be found having identical analysis, they would be 
equally good in quality; (2) that if the silicon in coke and 
other hot-blast irons could be reduced to the same percent- 
age that existed in these cold-blast irons, either by partial 
blowing in a converter or by diluting the iron in the cupola 
with irons or steel that contained little or no silicon (such 
as steel-rail ends), the same results would be found. Prac- 
tical experiments demonstrated the truth of these theories; 
and now there is probably more iron used in making car- 
wheels than the whole product of the 'Hanging Rock ' and 



MIXING CAST IRON. 21 

the 'Salisbury ' districts, these irons no longer bringing 
the fancy prices, relatively to other irons, that they once 
did : irons formerly considered not good enough are now 
in demand for the purpose, and the cost of the iron used 
in a car-wheel is greatly reduced. 

" The time is probably not far distant when pig iron for 
foundry purposes will be bought and sold on analysis, just 
as iron for Bessemer and other steel now is; and the results 
will be stronger and cheaper castings, more certainty in 
quality of product, lower prices for fancy brands of iron 
sold on their old reputations, and higher prices for scrap, 
white iron, silver gray, and other varieties hitherto under- 
valued." 

I shall now attempt to give an account of some of the 
chemical substances found in irons of different kinds, and 
how to combine them to obtain certain results. 

With the view of becoming better acquainted with the 
nature of ' pig iron,' let us determine what influence car- 
bon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, and silicon have 
upon it. 

It must be understood that the strength of cast iron de- 
pends on (1) the amount of weakening impurities pres- 
ent; (2) the proportion existing between the combined 
and the graphitic carbon. 

According to their influence on the properties of cast- 
iron, the elements mentioned may be classified into two 
groups: (1) Softeners — graphitic carbon and silicon. (2) 
Hardeners — combined carbon, manganese, sulphur, and 
phosphorus. 



28 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

GRAPHITIC CARBON. 

Carbon existing as graphite in cast iron makes it soft and 
tough, and increases its fluidity. 

When molten iron solidifies, the liberation of the carbon 
occurs at the instant of crystallization. 

Silicon added to iron produces graphite. 

The amount of graphite in gray irons varies from about 
1.5 to 3.5 per cent. 

In Scotch irons the graphitic carbon should not be 
below 3.0 per cent. 



COMBINED CARBON. 

Combined carbon in proper proportion to graphitic car- 
bon increases the strength of cast iron. 

Cast iron which contains too much combined carbon be- 
comes harder and more brittle in proportion, and shrinks 
more in cooling than does graphitic carbon. 

Sudden cooling of the metal prevents the liberation of 
carbon as graphite, and retains it in the state of combi- 
nation with the iron. 

Repeated remelting increases the combined carbon, and 
when silicon is taken from iron the combined carbon is 
also increased. 

For soft castings the mixture should not contain over 
0.2 per cent of combined carbon, but for strong castings 
0.4 to 0.8 per cent is admissible, and in some cases even 
more. 

So-called " Scotch" irons or "softeners" should contain 
;i maximum of graphitic and a minimum of combined 
carbon. The best brands of these irons sometimes contain 
less than 0.1 per cent of combined carbon. 



MIXING CAST IRON. 29 



MANGANESE. 

Manganese tends to the formation of combined carbon, 
reduces the tensile strength, makes the iron hard and 
brittle, causes more waste by reason of the formation of 
additional slag, and acts in a contrary direction to silicon. 

Manganese in foundry irons varies from mere traces to 
over 2.0 per cent. 

For the reasons as herein stated, manganese can only be 
tolerated in very strong castings, and even then should not 
exceed in the mixture over 0.5 per cent. 



SULPHUR. 

Sulphur contributes to retain the carbon in the combined 
state, and probably also promotes the formation of com- 
bined carbon, and consequently hardens the castings. 

In foundry irons this element should not exceed 0.1 per 
cent. 



PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus causes hardness and brittleness by lowering 
the separation of graphite, but increases fluidity. 

Phosphorus in foundry irons varies from 0.2 to 1.0 pel 
cent, and sometimes even more; but for best results in 
foundry mixtures, it should not exceed 0.5 per cent, or, 
preferably, 0.3 per cent. 

The injurious effects of phosphorus become more ap- 
parent in proportion as the percentage of combined carbon 
increases. 

High phosphorus is desirable only in cases where great 
fluidity, regardless of strength, is the chief desideratum. 



30 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



SILICON". 

Silicon increases fluidity, and reduces hardness and 
shrinkage of castings by its influence on the combined 
carbon, changing it into graphitic; but after the bulk of 
the carbon has become graphitic, through an addition of 
silicon, any further addition of silicon hardens the casting. 

In the foundry the problem is to have the right propor- 
tions of combined and graphitic carbon in the resultant 
castings, and the fundamental laws in foundry practice 
are, that in white pig iron an addition of silicon precipi- 
tates the combined carbon in the form of graphitic carbon, 
and causes gray iron to be produced, and that in gray pig 
iron the expulsion of silicon converts the graphitic carbon 
into combined carbon and produces white iron. 

The variations, within certain limits, in the proportions 
of silicon, afford a reliable means of producing castings of 
any mechanical character which is possible with the ma- 
terials employed; but the percentage of silicon required 
depends greatly upon the condition in which the carbon 
exists in the iron to begin with, viz., in an iron when the 
bulk of the carbon is already graphitic, more silicon may 
weaken the casting and make it brittle. 

Thus by a judicious use of silicon the proportioning of 
the carbon may be accomplished accordiug to the wish of 
the founder. 

The amount of silicon producing the maximum of 
strength is about 1.8 to 2.0 per cent when a white base is 
used. 

The strongest castings are obtained from irons which, 
when melted alone, will produce sound castings with the 
least amount of graphite, and each addition of silicon to 
such iron will decrease strength. 

When strength is desired, it should also be borne in mind 



MIXING CAST IRON. 31 

that the phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese must be kept 
low, or within certain limits. 

Gray foundry irons contain from 1.0 to 5.0 per cent, 
ferro silicons from 5.0 to 14.0 per cent, and castings will 
vary from 1.5 to 3.0 per cent of silicon. 

In figuring for the silicon contained in scrap-iron the 
following will be found a safe estimate: 1.5 per cent for 
.scrap from castings which show a gray fracture; 1.0 per 
cent for such as show a mottled fracture; 0.5 per cent for 
turnings (cast) when clean; 0.0 per cent when rusty, and 
the same for burnt iron. 

The percentage of silicon to be figured for in white pig 
iron is about 0.5. 

In the paper written by W. J. Keep, Detroit, Mich., en- 
titled " Silicon in Cast Iron," the whole subject is treated 
in a masterly manner, and all who carefully peruse its 
pages must inevitably agree with that illustrious investi- 
gator in the conclusions he draws with regard to the won- 
derful element which he so ably discusses. In the last clause 
of his paper he says: " We have seen, however, that a white 
iron which will invariably give porous and brittle castings 
can be made solid and strong by the addition of silicon ; 
that a further addition of silicon will turn the iron gray, 
and that as the grayness increases the iron will grow 
weaker; that excessive silicon will again lighten the grain, 
and cause a hard and brittle as well as a very weak iron ; 
that the only softening and shrinkage-lessening influence 
of silicon is exerted during the time when graphite is 
being produced, and that silicon of itself is not a softener 
or a lessener of shrinkage, but through its influence on 
carbon, and only during a certain stage, it does produce 
these effects." 

From the foregoing it must be inferred that if founders 
are to keep pace with this age of discovery they must be 
willing to leave the old beaten tracks of indecision and 



3 fc 2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

doubt, and seize upon the more tangible methods which 
science reveals to us every day. 

The suggestions herein contained should, I think, go 
far owards making what has hitherto seemed a mystery 
appear as a problem easy of solution : for instance, a cast- 
ing is required that shall meet certain conditions; a careful 
study of the foregoing will enable the founder to know 
what proportion of the several elements may with safety 
be allowed to enter into the mixture, and knowing from 
previous analysis what the stock consists of, he can at once 
decide which course to pursue, and all this with a positive- 
ness which is simplicity itself. 

The reader will also see how effectually this method will 
eradicate the old foundry nomenclature, as, instead of the 
present distinguishing terms as applied to cast iron in 
stock, we should know them according to analysis, as 
brands high, medium, or low in one or more of their con- 
stituent elements. 

Of course a thorough knowledge of this proposed inno- 
vation will mark a new era in the prices of cast iron, as 
before stated, because the demands for so-called No. 1 
irons will not necessarily be as urgent as is now the case; 
and I am surprised that employers have not before now 
grasped the situation, for it is no exaggeration to say that 
if the services of the metallurgical chemist were more gen- 
erally insisted upon, and the proposed method adopted in 
its entirety, an immense saving would be effected, as lower 
grades of iron could be used with absolute certainty. 

It must not be supposed that the founder can, under any 
circumstances, omit the care and supervision always requi- 
site where the best practice is to be obtained. 

AVhile scrap, so-called, ceases under the proposed change 
to be a drug, and becomes in some instances a prime ne- 
cessity, every precaution must be taken to insure its suc- 
cessful reduction in the cupol; ; all such as is very dirty 



MIXING CAST IRON. 83 

should be thoroughly cleaned, and when there is a large 
quantity of very fine scrap it is preferable to charge it all 
together, at the last of the heat, mixed with as much high 
silicon iron as will insure its conversion into a desirable 
mixture. 

When it is remembered that scrap, especially such as has 
been frequently remelted, contains a larger amount of com- 
bined carbon than the original pig from which it was made, 
there will be no difficulty in understanding that such scrap, 
judiciously used, will neutralize any tendency to sponginess 
which may be inherent in the pig. such mixtures to be 
proportioned according to the degree of fineness desired in 
the resultant casting. 

Too little care is exercised in the choice of a man to 
attend the cupola; and if employers could be made to see 
how much they lose every year through sheer incompe- 
tency in the management of that important department, 
we should soon see a different class of men employed. 
An ignorant man cannot be expected to take any interest 
in mixtures, economy, and the numberless other important 
factors which are indispensable where the best results are 
looked for. 

A carefully kejDt record of every day's melting is abso- 
lutely necessary, — for, hoAvever precise the mixtures may 
be made, there will always be neutralizing influences, more 
or less, at work to make such a course indispensable, — the 
several adverse results can be noted, and the reasons for 
such inquired into. 

Physical tests must also be taken ; for it must be borne 
in mind that in this business nothing is absolute, so many 
things, unavoidable sometimes (conflicting, nevertheless), 
such as different degrees of heat, rapid meltiug or the op- 
posite, and countless other contingencies exist; and these 
make it imperative that test-bars be made each melt, with 
the view of ascertaining the exact amount of shrinkage, 



34 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

tendency to sink or draw, tendency to chill, degree of 
hardness, strength, etc., all of which make useful data for 
future reference. 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 

THE ART OF MELTING IRON IN THEM, WITH TABLE OF 
FULL EXPLANATIONS FOR THEIR ERECTION AND 
MANAGEMENT. 

The cupola is now one of the most important factors in 
foundry economy. Its management commands the atten- 
tion of the founder to a far greater extent to-day than it 
has ever done in the past. No matter what pains may be 
taken to insure a good and safe mould, every attempt in 
that direction will be neutralized if the molten iron 
supplied for filling it is not in every sense up to that 
standard of excellence which a right use of the materials 
employed warrants us to expect. 

The truth of the above has been so often demonstrated, 
that any further allusion to the fact would be superfluous 
here. The science of melting in cupolas seems to have 
made very slow progress, until it was seen by some of the 
advanced thinkers on the subject that there was " money 
in it"; then the services of the engineer and scientist were 
enlisted in the cause, and specialists in the manufacture of 
cupolas and blowers were to be found everywhere. 

A result of this change in the order of things is that, 
instead of working, as has hitherto been the case, by the 
"rule of thumb," we are now enabled to measure, with a 
degree of accuracy almost marvellous, the air, fuel, capacity 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 35 

of cupola, and pressure of blast, etc., required to melt a 
given quantity of iron in a specified time. True, we do not 
always accomplish this with the degree of accuracy above 
spoken of, but in nearly every case of failure the cause 
may be traced to the non-fulfilment of the known condi- 
tions. 

It must be remembered that the intelligence of the 
melter has not grown with the steady improvements now 
being established in nearly all of our leading establish- 
ments; consequently it requires the constant attention of 
foreman or manager to insure a correct manipulation of 
improved cupolas and their adjuncts. 

The thoughtful founder has profited to an appreciable 
extent by reason of the claims for recognition made by the 
manufacturers of cupolas and blowers, for in order to sub- 
stantiate such claims they have flooded the market with 
catalogues and pamphlets, which contain an elucidation of 
the science of melting such as cannot be found anywhere 
else. 

This literature, made purposely plain, has been read 
extensively, with very good results : a better feeling has been 
established between the workman and the scholar, and 
there is now no doubt in the mind of the practical founder 
that the day of mystery is past, for very much if not all 
')f the mystery has been scattered by those very scholars 
whom he has always been taught to despise. 

The good resulting from this improved education in 
matters relating to the melting of iron in cupolas is 
nowhere seen to better advantage than in the erection and 
management of what may be called the common cupola, 
which, notwithstanding the immense number of patent 
ones sold, still finds a place in every land, and I suppose 
always will. It must strike the interested observer that, 
after all, there is not very much difference in the construc- 
tion of cupolas. Most of the so-called ' improved ' have 



36 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

made their debut within the last thirty-rive years, and very 
many of them have, after a short trial, been changed back to 
the old style, with considerable profit to those interested. 

Others are simply ' tolerated ' because they are neither 
better nor worse than the old style; and not a few of the 
really meritorious cupolas are producing minimized results 
from the simple cause that there is not sufficient intel- 
ligence expended on their management. In a number of 
cases, when the formulas furnished by the patentees for 
guidance in the management of their cupolas are followed 
to the letter, very excellent results ensue, both time and 
money being saved by adopting them; but as these formu- 
las are carefully prepared by experts, and are in the main 
reliable, we need not inquire into their respective merits, 
but proceed at once to an exposition of the construction 
and management of the common cupola, for, on account of 
the extra cost of erection, joined to the strict management 
required for the successful working of most patent cupolas, 
there will, I presume, always be a demand for the former. 

The blast-furnace, in some form or other, has always 
had a place in the metallurgical arts, and dates back to the 
earlier dynasties of the ancient empire of Egypt; true, 
they were very simple contrivances, but that which was 
accomplished is made to appear all the more wonderful in 
view of their simplicity. The Catalan furnace is a type of 
some of these old-time smelting processes, and, primitive 
as they were, could be found in use in some parts of 
Europe a few years back ; these were simply a hole in the 
ground, with walled sides, into which a copper tuyere pipe 
penetrated. When the charcoal and ore had been properly 
placed within this hole the blast was forced through the 
tuyere pipe by some of the antiquated methods then in 
vogue, until the molten iron was produced. 

At Fi^. 7 will be seen a longitudinal vertical section of 
the Catalan furnace, which, as will be observed, lias no 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 



37 



chimneys. On the left of the figure is seen the lower part 
of the tromp or blowing engine; the blast is produced by 
means of a fall of water of about twenty-five feet through 
a tube into the cistern below, to whose upper part the blast- 
pipe is connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. 
This apparatus is on the outside of the building, and is 
said to afford a continuous blast of great regularity. 

Now if we continue the walls of this primitive contriv- 
ance, what do we obtain in reality other than the cupola of 




Catalan Furnace 



Fig. 7. 



to-day, exact in every particular so far as the principles 
involved for melting iron are concerned ? 

Fig. 8 shows sections and elevation of what was con- 
sidered a good type of cupola fifty years ago, and of which 
type there are large numbers still working in England and 
in parts of the European continent, as well as still a few 
in some of the remote parts of this country. There is 
really no essential difference betwixt the cupola shown at 
Fig. 8 and that seen at Fig. 9, except that, instead of the 
bottom resting on a solid foundation, as at Fig. 8, the one 
at Fig. 9 is supported by four columns A, which allows for 



38 



THE IRON-JKJUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Section of Fig 



Fig. 8. 



^-''Cniler tivtmnil Main Blast Pipe- 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 39 

the dropping out of the whole contents of the cupola at 
once, swing-doors B being provided for that purpose, whilst 
in the former case the cupola, when done working, must 
be raked out with hooks through large apertures A pro- 
vided for the purpose. 

Another feature which commands attention is the sub- 
stitution of a wind-box round the cupola, connecting with 
a system of pipes above, for the underground arrangement 
shown at B, B, Fig. 8; this allows for the multiplication 
of tuyeres or any other changes which experience may sug- 
gest, being made with very little trouble or expense. 

A careful examination of Fig. 9, aided by the table 
which accompanies this article, will enable any one to 
build a cupola after the pattern shown, which pattern is, 
to all intents and purposes, what we may call a common 
cupola, in contradistinction to all such as are protected by 
letters patent. 

Let us now consider in detail the various requirements 
for the erection and management of such a cupola. 

LOCATION OF CUPOLA. 

What shall be its capacity, and where shall it be located ? 
are very important points to be considered. With regard 
to the latter query, due care should always be exercised 
to choose a location which will be equidistant from all its 
parts, for, whether the iron is carried in shanks, run on 
trucks, or changed from crane to crane in ladles, this 
disposition will give an equal and rapid distribution. 

A very good axiom is that of Mr. Kirk's, who, in his 
very excellent work " Founding of Metals," says: "It is 
easier to wheel pig iron to a cupola than it is to carry 
molten iron away from it." 



40 



THE UlUX- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Fig. 9. 



Amtrrlc-nXa^init J 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 41 

CAPACITY OF CUPOLA. 

The accompanying table will be of service in deter- 
mining the capacity of cupola needed for the production 
of a given quantity of iron in a specified time. 

First, ascertain the amount of iron which is likely to be 
needed at each cast, and the length of time which can be 
devoted profitably to its disposal; and supposing that two 
hours is all that can be spared for that purpose, and that 
ten tons is the amount which must be melted, find in the 
column " Melting Capacity per hour in Pounds" the nearest 
figure to five tons per hour, which is found to be 10,760 
pounds per hour, opposite to which, in the column 
" Diameter of Cupola's Inside Lining," will be found 48 
inches: this will be the size of cupola required to furnish 
ten tons of molten iron in two hours. 

Or suppose that the heats were likely to average six tons, 
with an occasional increase up to ten, then it might not be 
thought wise to incur the extra expense consequent on 
working a 48-inch cupola; in which case, by following the 
directions given, it will be found that a 40-inch cupola 
would answer the purpose for 6 tons, but would require an 
additional hour's time for melting whenever the 10-ton 
heat came along. 

Let it be understood that the quotations in the table are 
not supposed to be all that can be melted in the hour by 
some of the very excellently equipped cupolas now in the 
market, but are simply the amounts which a common 
cupola under ordinary circumstances may be expected to 
melt in the time specified. 

HEIGHT OF CUPOLA. 

What is meant by height of cupola is the distance from 
the base to the bottom side of the charging hole. 



42 



THE I ICON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



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FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 



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44 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Height in cupolas is important, as all low cupolas lose 
a considerable amount of combustible gas, which escapes 
unburnt; whereas when a sufficient height is allowed a 
large quantity of this gas mixes with the oxygen above and 
iguites, thus giving off heat available for combustion. 

Should it be required to know what height to make a 50- 
inch cupola, find 50 inches in the column " Diameter of 
Cupolas," opposite to which, in the column " Height of 
Cupola" from base to bottom side of charging hole, will 
be found 14 feet, so that a 50-inch cupola should have a 
height of 14 feet. 

The height of any other cupola from 24 inches to 84 
inches diameter may be found in the same manner. 



DEPTH OF BOTTOM OF CUPOLA. 

Depth of bottom is the distance from the sand bed, after 
it has been formed at the bottom of the cupola, up to the 
under side of the tuyeres. 

It will be seen in the table (pp. • 42, 43), that all the 
amounts for fuel are based upon a bottom of 10 inches 
deep, and any departure from this depth must be met by 
a corresponding change in the quantity of fuel used on the 
bed ; more in proportion as the depth is increased, and 
less when it is made shallower. 



AMOUNT OF FUEL REQUIRED ON THE BED. 

The column, " Amount of Fuel required on Bed, in 
Pounds," will, I hope, be found serviceable; it is based on 
the supposition that the cupola is a straight one all through, 
and, as before stated, that the bottom is 10 inches deep. 
If the bottom be more, as in those of the Colliau type, then 
additional fuel Avill be needed. 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 45 

The amounts being given in pounds, answers for both 
coal and coke, for, should coal be used, it would reach 
about 15 inches above the tuyeres; the same weight of 
coke would bring it up to about 22 inches above the 
tuyeres, which is a reliable amount to stock with. 



FIRST CHAEGE OF IRON. 

The amounts given in this column of the table are safe 
figures to work upon in every instance, yet it will always 
be in order, after proving the ability of the bed to carry 
the load quoted, to make a slow and gradual increase of 
the load until it is fully demonstrated just how much bur- 
den the bed will carry; for, as before stated, these figures 
represent the safe load under ordinary conditions, as to 
fuel and blast, in a common cupola, and not what may be 
accomplished when the most elegant practice is essayed. 

SUCCEEDING CHARGES OF FUEL AND IRON". 

By consulting the columns relating to succeeding 
charges of fuel and iron, it will be seen that the highest 
proportions are not favored, for the simple reason that suc- 
cessful melting with any greater proportion of iron to fuel 
is not the rule, but, rather, the exception. 

Whenever we see that iron has been melted in prime 
condition in the proportion of 12 pounds of iron to one of 
fuel, we may reasonably expect that the talent, material, 
and cupola have all been up to the highest degree of excel- 
lence. 

DIAMETER OF MAIN" BLAST-PIPE. 

The table gives the diameters of main blast-pipes for all 
cupolas from 24 to 84 inches diameter. 



46 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

No part of the foundry economy has been more ne- 
glected than this; go where you will, there seems to have 
been blundering in this particular: especially is this the 
case in some old firms which have made additions to their 
moulding capacity from time to time, necessitating the 
erection of other cupolas, which have been connected to 
r he old conducting pipe, no matter whether it was ade- 
quate to the task of furnishing sufficient blast or not. 
This is not wise, as the loss by friction in pipes that are 
too small causes a greater demand on the engine and 
blower, which, being pushed to their extreme limit, in 
order if possible to maintain a full head of blast, causes a 
loss from undue wear and tear, which would in a very 
short time pay the expense of a new and larger set of 
pipes. 

But this is not all : the increased capacity of the pipes 
in such a case is absolutely necessary, in order to supply 
the exact quantity of air for perfect combustion, without 
which we must look in vain for a regular supply of soft 
fluid iron. This latter want alone ought to be, if properly 
understood, a sufficient incentive to make us look well 
after the main blast-pipe. 

The sizes given opposite each cupola are of sufficient 
area for all lengths up to 100 feet. 

TUYEKES FOE CUPOLA. 

It will be seen that two columns are devoted to the 
number and sizes of tuyeres requisite for the successful 
working of each cupola; one gives the number of pipes 6 
inches diameter, and the other gives the number and di- 
mensions of rectangular tuyeres which are their equivalent 
in area. 

From these two columns any other arrangement or dis- 
position of tuyeres may be made, which shall answer in 
their totality to the areas given in the table. 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 



47 



By referring to the column, " Number of Tuyeres 6 
inches diameter," etc., it will be found that the 60-inch 
cupola would require a little over 13^ such tuyeres to fur- 
nish a sufficient volume of blast to insure successful melt- 




Svction through A. 
Fig. 10. 



American Alachii 



ing, and opposite to this, in the column for Flat Tuyeres, 
will be found that 8 flat tuyeres 16^ inches by 3 inches 
would be their equivalent; and by the same method it z's 
seen that the 24-inch cupola would need one and a half 



48 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

round tuyeres 6 inches diameter, or two flat ones 10^ 
inches by 2 inches. 

When cupolas exceed 60 inches in diameter, the increase 
should begin somewhere above the tuyeres, after the man- 
ner shown at Fig. 10, which represents the lower portion of 
a cupola 84 inches diameter above the tuyeres and GO 
inches diameter below. This method is absolutely neces- 
sary in all common cupolas above 60 inches, because it is not 
possible to force the blast to the middle of the stock, effec- 
tively, at any greater diameter. 

On no consideration must tbe tuyere area be reduced; 
this is to all intents and purposes an 84-inch cupola, and 
must, as is seen in the table, have tuyere area equal to 31 
pipes 6 inches diameter, or 16 flat tuyeres 16 inches by 3^ 
inches. 

If it is found that the given number of flat tuyeres ex- 
ceed in circumference that of the diminished part of the 
cupola, they can be shortened, allowing the decreased 
length to be added to the depth, or they may be built in 
on end, as seen in Fig. 10; by so doing we arrive at a modi- 
fied form of the famous Blakeney cupola. 

Various methods have been adopted to overcome the 
difficulty of reaching the middle of the furnace with a 
sufficient volume of blast to insure perfect combustion 
amongst others, in particular, we notice the Mackenzie c 
pola, which, they claim, differs from all others in having . 
continuous tuyere that allows the blast to enter the fuel 
at all poiuts. This construction, they further claim, brings 
the blast to the centre of the furnace with the least pos- 
sible resistance and the smallest amount of power. The 
method of introducing the blast into the Makenzie cupola 
is illustrated at Fig. 11. 

Another highly important point in this connection is to 
arrange the tuyeres in such a manner as will concentrate 
the fire at the melting-point into the smallest possible 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 



49 



compass, so that the metal in fusion will have less space to 
traverse while exposed to the oxidizing influence of the 
blast. 

To accomplish this, recourse has been had to the plac- 
ing of additional rows of tuyeres in some instances — the 
' Stewart rapid cupola ' having three rows, and notably 





Fig. II. 



Fig. 12. 



the 'Colliau cupola furnace,' which has two rows of 
tuyeres. 

The patentees of the Colliau claim that their records 
show the most economy in- fuel and iron, the greatest 
rapidity in fusion, and the largest amount of iron melted 
in a given time and size, as well as the greatest quantity of 
iron melted in a cupola without clogging. 



50 THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

It will be seen by consulting Fig. 12, which is a represen- 
tation of a Colliau cupola, that it is in all respects, except 
the tuyeres, a common cupola; therefore, whatever its 
superiority over other common ones may be, all the credit 
is due to the iugenious disposition of the tuyeres. 

BLAST-PKESSURE. 

Accurate experiments made by experts in this branch of 
science prove beyond doubt that about 30,000 cubic feet 
of air are consumed in melting a ton of iron, which, if 
reduced to a solid, would weigh about 2400 pounds, or 
more than both iron and fuel. In reference to this im- 
portant subject an authority says: "When the proper 
quantity of air is supplied, the oombustion of the fuel is 
perfect, and carbonic-acid gas is the result. When the 
supply of air is insufficient, the combustion is imperfect, 
and carbonic oxide-gas is the result. The amount of heat 
evolved in these two cases is as fifteen to four and a half 
(15 : 4A), showing a loss of over two thirds of the heat by 
imperfect combustion. Though the difference between 
perfect and imperfect combustion is so astonishing, it is 
seldom taken into account by foundrymen, and most of 
them are unconsciously submitting to a great loss, which 
can be easily remedied." 

It is not always true that we obtain the most rapid melt- 
ing when we are forcing into the cupola the largest quantity 
of air. Some time is required, says the authority previously 
quoted, to elevate the temperature of the air supplied to 
the point that it will enter into combustion. If more air 
than this is supplied, it rapidly absorbs heat, reduces the 
tempei*ature, and retards combustion, and the fire in the 
cupola may be extinguished with too much blast, as the 
flame of the lamp is blown out with the breath. 

When all these conditions are well understood by the 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 51 

student in cupola practice, he will then realize how im- 
portant it is that the requisite amount of pressure, and no 
more, be maintained during the whole process of melting. 

In the table will be found a column, Blast Pressure 
Required, in Ounces, which gives the amount of pressure 
required for each-sized cupola. 



BLOWERS AND ENGINES. 

The blowers chosen as standards for this table are the 
Root and Sturtevant; should any other be used, it is im- 
portant that their capacity be measured, so that any differ- 
ence may be noted, and due allowance made. 

Should it be required to know what size of Root blower 
would be most suitable for supplying blast to a 42-inch 
cupola, it will be found to be a No. 3, opposite to which 
number is 6 horse-power, being the power of engine 
needed for a No. 3 Root blower; and by the same method, 
if for the same-sized cupola a Sturtevant blower was de- 
sired, the number of blower will be a No. 5, but the engine 
is 5j horse-power. Be sure that the engine is of sufficient 
power to insure a full or maximum blast, and if possible 
have it free from any other machinery. 



TOTAL MELTING CAPACITY OF CUPOLAS. 

The figures given in the column, Total Melting Capacity 
of Cupolas, in Pounds, are not meant as absolute (to do 
that would be impossible; the melting capacity of any 
cupola is influenced, for good or bail, by the amount of 
intelligence which is brought to bear upon its manage- 
ment); they are approximate under ordinary circumstances, 
and will be of assistance in selecting a suitable cupola for 
the work in hand. 



52 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



SLAG IN CUPOLAS. 

A certain amount of slag is necessary to protect the 
molten iron which has fallen to the bottom from the 
action of the blast: if it was not there, the iron would 
suffer from decarbonization, and would consequently be 
less fluid. 

AVhen slag from any cause forms in too great abundance, 
it should be led away by inserting a hole a little below the 
tuyeres, through which it will find its way as the iron rises 
in the bottom. 

In the event of clean iron and fuel, slag seldom forms 
to any appreciable extent in small heats; this renders any 
preparation for its withdrawal unnecessary, but when the 
cupola is to be taxed to its utmost capacity it is then in- 
cumbent on the melter to flux the charges all through the 
heat, carrying the slag away in the manner directed. 

The best flux for this purpose is the chips from a white 
marble yard; this is a much purer limestone than any 
other of the carbonates, and requires less melting. About 
6 pounds to the ton of iron will give good results when all 
is clean, as it suffices to keep the cupola open during a 
long heat without flooding at the tap-hole, at the same 
time it softens the cinder, and makes it much easier to 
chip out afterwards. 

When fuel is bad, or iron is dirty, or both together, it 
becomes imperative that the slag be kept running all the 
time, otherwise the cupola will clog up gradually, and 
become useless before half its work is completed. 

FUEL FOR CUPOLAS. 

Without doubt, the best fuel for melting iron is coke, 
simply because it requires less blast, makes hotter iron, 
and melts faster than coal. When coal must be used, care 



FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 53 

should be exercised in its selection. All anthracites which 
are bright, black, hard, and free from slate will melt iron 
admirably. The size of the coal used affects the melting 
to an appreciable extent, and for the best results small 
cupolas should be charged with the size called ' egg,' a 
still larger grade for medium-sized cupolas, and what is 
called ' lump ' will answer for all large cupolas when care 
is taken to pack it carefully on the charges. 

LINING AND REPAIRING CUPOLAS. 

For many years I have demonstrated the fact that the 
best man to line or build up a cupola is an intelligent 
cupola-man, who will see to it that every brick is rubbed 
well down on its fellow; also, that it fits the shell as close 
as it is possible to make it. 

For best results the mortar should be as near as possible 
of the same nature as the bricks. When requested to do 
so, the dealers can always supply the right article. Any 
attempt to make this mortar from the clays and sands in 
ordinary use should be scouted, as the bricks soon become 
loose if inferior clay is used in their setting, and this 
brings about an early collapse of the whole structure. 

Too little attention is usually paid to the nature of the 
materials supplied the melter for repairs; hence a new- 
lined cupola, which ought to last from one to two years, is 
used up in half the time, and sometimes less. If the best 
silicious sand and the most refractory fire-clay was used for 
this purpose, there would be a great saving effected in the 
course of a year. 

A good melter will note the form of the inside of his 
cupola when it has been newly lined, and endeavor by 
careful mending every morning to maintain tho original 
shape. If he finds it is wearing fast at the melting part, 
he will not endeavor to preventthat by pressing into the 



54 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

cavity Lirge quantities of wet clay, for he knows that by 
so doing it is more than likely that the whole patch would 
fall away as scon as the great heat to which it is subjected 
comes upon it. 

If it is found that the bricks are wearing fast at that 
part, the right course to pursue is to rub well on a thin 
coat of daubing each day, until it is thought advisable to 
chip out a course or two at the bad spot, and make good 
with new bricks. 



CHAEGIISTG THE CUPOLA. 

As the table serves the purpose of explaining, approxi- 
mately, the amounts of fuel and iron to be charged on the 
various-sized cupolas, it only remains to be said that, in 
order to obtain the best results at the cupola, choice must 
be made of the most intelligent of the unskilled help 
in the foundry from which to train a skilful melter. 

Let him be taught the importance of strict observation, 
taking care to duly mark every change in the operations of 
melting, and make note of the results; and whilst it will 
always be his pleasure to do as his foreman instructs, he 
must cultivate a spirit of self-reliance, which every day's 
experience will serve to strengthen and solidify. 

The pleasure of having a melter who can be trusted to 
do as lie is instructed, and who can also be depended upon 
for the intelligent performance of all the details connected 
with the successful management of cupolas, is known to 
no one better than the writer of these pages. 



REVERB ERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 55 



REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 

TKEIR USE FOR THE PURPOSE OF MELTING CAST IRON 
FULLY EXPLAINED. 

Reverberatory, or, as they are more frequently called, 
' wind or air furnaces,' to distinguish them from those 
worked with compressed air or blast, are not as commonly 
used for general purposes now as they were formerly, for 
manifest reasons, some of which it would perhaps be well 
to inquire into. 

In the first place it is claimed that they are too expensive 
in their working, requiring, as they do, more than twice the 
amount of fuel that is needed in the cupola for the produc- 
tion of good hot iron ; but an extensive practice has con- 
vinced me that even such considerations would have been 
overlooked on particular occasions if there had been a good 
reverberatory furnace in the shop. 

Too frequently castings are needed which, if common 
justice were done to all parties concerned, ought to have 
been cast from the reverberatory furnace; and in the some- 
times oft-repeated effort to produce iron of the desired 
homogeneousness in the cupola the cost of production in 
the end has been very far in excess of what it would have 
been had the proper furnace for the job been on hand. 

Another of the prime causes for this discontinuance is 
the great lack of knowledge manifested in their construction 
and management, owing to which, failures have attended 
the efforts of quite a number of founders who have endeav- 
ored to establish their use, and they have been forced to 
abandon the enterprise and fall back disappointed to the 
cupola again. 



56 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

This should not be the case, nor need there be any such 
giving np: the business can be learned, like any other, by 
hard application and industry; and no better incentive to 
this could be adduced than to inform all such as have failed 
in learning the art, that throughout the whole of Europe 
the reverberatory is as common as the cupola furnace is 
here. 

Do not understand me as urging their general adoplion 
in place of the cupola: in view of the latter's great utility 
such a proposition would be preposterous in the extreme. 
But I do maintain that if they were built and held in readi- 
ness for emergencies, which are constantly occurring, it 
would reveal a greater wisdom on the part of our leading 
founders. 

It cannot be denied that the reverberatory furnace will 
yield a purer metal than is possible for the cupola to do, 
simply because it is melted separate from the fuel, and 
consequently cannot absorb its impurities; whilst, on the 
other hand, the iron in the cupola is charged in direct con- 
tact with the fuel, with the consequent result of being more 
or less impregnated with its impurities. This fact is incon- 
trovertible, and speaks volumes in favor of the reverberatory, 
when absolutely clean iron is the desideratum. 

Iron melted in the reverberatory furnace loses a portion 
of its oxygen during the process. This tends to harden 
by converting graphitic into combined carbon; hence the 
eminent adaptability of these furnaces for the production 
of iron suitable for guns, hydraulic cylinders, rams, heavy 
rolls, etc., as any degree of homogeneousness can be obtained 
by polling the molten iron in the reservoir after it has all 
melted, and at the same time allowing the full force of the 
flame to play upon its surface until the iron, by dipping 
test, shows the desired texture. 

One great advantage claimed by the workers in malleable 
iron is, that iron melted in the reverberatory furnace an- 



REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 67 

neals at a heat very much lower than would be required 
for iron melted in the cupola; this will in some measure 
compensate for the extra cost of melting in the former. 

For the reduction of unwieldy masses of scrap-iron this 
class of furnace is indispensable, as any amount of this 
apparent drug can be reduced into good fluid iron with the 
greatest ease. 

For the benefit of all such as are ignorant of the princi- 
ples which govern the art of melting in these furnaces, it is 
needful to say that in all cases where it is desired to melt 
metals out of contact with the solid fuel, special combustion 
chambers or fireplaces must be provided, the metal being 
melted by the body of flame and heated gas acting upon its 
surface as it lays on the bed of the furnace. 

To accomplish this effectively, the flame must be made 
to reverberate from the low vaulted roof of the furnace 
downwards, and the form of the roof associated with the 
velocity of the flame will determine what part or parts of 
the bed will receive the full force of the heat current. 

This fact gives rise to numerous opinions as to the cor- 
rect form to be given the inside of a reverberatory furnace 
for obtaining the maximum of efficiency, some favoring 
the method of placing the charge behind the bridge wall; 
others again maintain that the chimney end is the best for 
charging, because it is generally alloAved to be the hottest ; 
but however much they may vary in construction, the prin- 
ciples which govern, as noted above, are about the same. 

The furnace represented by the illustrations accompany- 
ing this article is a very good one for general work, and 
very suitable for reducing or melting heavy lumps which 
would otherwise have to be cut up into smaller pieces before 
it would be practicable to melt them in the cupola. 

The chief points in the representations have their dimen- 
sions figured; this will aid in arriving at a correct estimate 
of the proportions of the furnace shown. Its outside di- 



58 TEE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

mensions, exclusive of plates, are 30 feet 6 inches long and 
7 feet wide. The whole structure is incased in wrought- 
iron plates joined together, as shown in plan, Fig. 13, and 
again by broken lines at Fig. 16. 

The corners are held together with angle-irons, and the 
principal anchors are those shown at Fig. 1G, and marked 
from 1 to 8, respectively. These 'chief anchor-bolts reach 
from one side to the other, passing through the structure at 
such places as are best calculated to bind the whole firmly 
together, and at the same time are clear of all working 
parts of the furnace, as will be observed by referring to 
Fig. 14. where the position of each bolt is shown at figures 
corresponding to those marked on the side elevation, Fig. 16. 

The amount of strain which this furnace is called upon 
to bear, owing to the intense heat and pressure to which it 
is subjected periodically, makes it imperative that not only 
the walls, but the foundation also, should be as substan- 
tially built as possible. 

The foundation A, Fig. 14, can be built up solid of com- 
mon material, up to the Hue of fire-brick, and in such form 
as will allow the fire-bricks when set thereon to incline 
from the chimney to the reservoir in a downward direction, 
as shown at Fig. 14; and it will be seen that all those from 
B to C must be kept six inches below what it is intended 
shall be bottom of the furnace after the sand bed has been 
formed upon it. 

The bridge wall D, Fig. 14, must in this case be not less 
than 2 feet 3 inches from the face of the grate-bars, and, 
like the sides, roof, and fireplace, must be built with the 
most refractory kind of fire-bricks. 

The fireplace must in all cases be built the full width of 
the furnace, to commence with: should it be thought desir- 
able to contract its dimensions subsequently, the task will 
be an easy one. 

The roof throughout its entire length is an arched one, 



REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 69 




60 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

and, as before stated, must be of fire-brick; whatever fill- 
ing is done above the fire-brick arches can be of commoner 
material. 

The chimney for such a furnace would need to be from 
30 to 40 feet in height, surmounted with a damper, so 
arranged as to be easily controlled from the bottom; this i3 
an important feature, as the draught is regulated altogether 
by the damper. It is hardly necessary to say that a chim- 
ney of this sort must be built with an inside course of fire- 
bricks, and no matter what form the outlet from the furnace 
may be, it is best to build the chimney square. 

The methods adopted for binding these chimneys are 
various, but as they are well understood by all masons ac- 
customed to this class of work, it will not be necessary 
to describe them here. As to their dimensions, it is a com- 
mon rule to have the inside area equal that of the air-space 
in the grate, but these things can only be determined by 
actual experience and practice. I have seen good melting 
done in reverberatory furnaces whose chimneys in some 
instances were much smaller than the rule allows; and 
again in other instances, when the chimney's area has 
been in excess of the air-space in the grate, the melting 
has been all that could be desired. I therefore conclude 
that it would be the wisest in all cases to have the area of 
the chimney somewhat in excess of the fireplace, as in any 
case the damper will regulate the draught with certainty 
when the height is sufficient. 

A very excellent mode of building chimneys is to have 
them as a separate structure, resting on a sole-plate sup- 
ported by four columns; this gives opportunity for making 
a connection with the furnace or furnaces from any direc- 
tion which may be chosen. 

There are two kinds of charging-doors shown : the one at 
A, Fig. 16, is on the side, and covers a hole 5 feet by 4 feet, 
through which the iron, heavy and light, is conveyed when 



REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 



61 




62 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the charging is all done from the side aperture; the other 
is seen on the top of the furnace at A, Fig. 15, and covers a 
hole as wide as the furnace, G feet in length. 

In all cases when the iron to be charged is heavy the 
latter method is the most convenient. As seen, the doors 
are lined with fire-bricks. 

The manner of building a furnace here shown admits of 
easy access to any part for repairs, for as all the connections 
are made with bolts (not rivets) one or more of the plates 
can be detached at the j>lace where it is needed for making 
alterations or repairs. 

Fuel is the all-important factor for producing hot iron in 
reverberatory furnaces, as it is also in cupolas; and although 
numerous tests have been made with coke, hard coal, an- 
thracite, and charcoal, none seem to work so well as the 
soft bituminous coal of the non-caking kind : it is the only 
fuel upon which the utmost confidence can be placed. 

The importance of a good draught in these furnaces will 
suggest itself to the least observant, but it must be remem- 
bered that this draught will draw cold as well as hot air 
through the stock if there arc openings left at any point 
for its ingress. This bad feature is to be avoided by all pos- 
sible means and this can only be done by incessant watching 
of the fire, always endeavoring to keep a full grate of live 
coal, and when clinkering must be done, let it be done 
quickly and well, and avoid making holes in the fire, 
through which cold air can rush into the furnace. 

The inrush of cold air is to be strictly guarded against 
from whatever cause; for, independent of the dangerous 
tendency towards chilling the furnace, there is a possibility 
of the chemical nature of the iron being changed by its 
admission. 

When the draught is strong enough to force the flame 
with a velocity sufficient to melt the iron quickly and hot, 
it need not be urged any more. 



BEVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 



63 



By referring to Fig. 14 it will be seen just how much 
of the bottom needs to be made up with sand ; it starts on 
the bed at B, and continues down and around the reservoir 
to C. If this bottom be well made with a preparation 
composed of eight parts fire-sand, and one each of clay 
and ground coke, it should last for ten heats, providing 
it receives from one to two hours' good firing before the 
first charge is piled in. 

The breast seen at A, Fig. 13, E, Fig. 14, and B, Fig. 15, 
can be made after the manner suitable for a large cupola, 
but as the hole must be stopped until the tap is made, pains 




Fig. 15. 



must be taken to fill the cavity all through its length with 
fire-sand mixed with a small portion of coal-dust; this can 
be easily withdrawn, as it will not cake together when it 
becomes hot. Before tapping be sure and close the damper. 
For charging purposes it is advisable to allow plenty of 
room at the doorways : especially is this the case when all 
must be charged through the side. The first layer of pigs 
must be set lengthwise with the furnace, a little apart, the 
following layers in opposite direction, but leaving spaces 
between each pig for the free passage of the flame ; in fact, 



64 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

open charging is to be observed, no matter of what nature 
the pig or scrap may be. 

When the pieces to be melted are of more than ordinary 
magnitude, it is then in order to have an open top through 
which to lower them down with the crane; the cover for 
such an opening is shown in end section at A, Fig. 15, being 
simply a segment of the circle corresponding to the arch of 
the roof at that point, with internal flanges for carrying a 
course of fire-bricks built in on end ; the rings C and D 
are for lifting the cover on and off with the crane. 

The object shown as resting on the bottom represents 
a U. S. 13-inch mortar, weighing about 17,000 pounds. 
Preparation is made to sustain this weight clear of the bed, 
by setting fire-bricks on the bottom, to finish level with the 
bed when it is formed, on which to rest other blocks for 
carrying the load; by this means the flame can play all 
around the piece, and a speedy reduction of the mass en- 
sues, if all is working right. 

It will be noticed that considerable space behind remains 
unoccupied, all of which can be utilized if more iron than 
is contained in the mortar be needed; for, as before stated, 
this is the hottest part of the furnace. 

All the iron required should be charged at the first, as it 
is not advisable to attempt the reduction of any additional 
stock immediately after the heat is down. Such attempts 
are attended with disaster oftener than otherwise, because 
the furnace cools off considerably by the admission of cold 
iron and cold air, making it next to impossible to melt the 
second charge before the iron first melted becomes cold and 
useless. 

The hole shown at B, Fig. 13, and at H, Fig. 14, is the 
puddling-hole, and, as will be noticed, is directly over the 
reservoir. It is through this hole that the dipping is done 
for testing purposes; the skimming is effected through this 
hole also. It is very important that the molten iron be kept 



REVERBERATORT OR AIR FURNACES. 65 




66 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



clean, as any accumulation of dirt or scum upon its surface 
acts like a shield, and interferes with the direct action of 
the flame upon its surface ; this, of course, is as good as so 
much heat lost. 

Another very important operation which is readily accom- 
plished by means of the puddling-hole is the boiling of the 
metal, a process which becomes absolutely necessary when 
opposite grades of iron are to be mixed together, out of 
which it is desired to obtain a thorough blending of the 




American Machinist 



Fig. 17. 



whole: this is done by thrusting down into the molten iron 
one or more green saplings. This, of course, creates a vio- 
lent ebullition throughout the mass, and usually effects the 
desired result; but this, as well as the other operations, 
must be done with the utmost dispatch, otherwise cold air 
will rush into the furnace in sufficient quantity to neutral- 
ize every good effect which should accrue from these several 
important agencies. 



CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 67 

Another hole is seen at 7, Fig. 14, which enables the 
melter to take an occasional glimpse into the interior of the 
furnace, and being directly in range with the bed, he can ma- 
terially accelerate the process of melting by separating such 
pieces as are welding together, as also by breaking up the 
more refractory ones: this hastens melting by increasing 
the surface upon which the flame can more effectually play. 

The old saying that ' a stitch in time saves nine ' applies 
with more than ordinary force to the management of these 
furnaces. A careful examination after each heat will reveal 
small and apparently insignificant faults. If these are at 
once remedied, these furnaces will not only last longer in 
good condition, but, as a natural consequence of their supe- 
rior efficiency, will also melt hotter and better iron. Fig. 
17 shows end view of furnace, opposite end to the chimney. 



CASTING ONE HUNDKED TONS OF CAST IRON. 

SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE NECES- 
SARY EQUIPMENT FOR POURING HEAVY CASTINGS; 
EAMS, RECEIVERS, AIR-FURNACES, LADLES, WITH 
TABLE OF CAPACITY OF ; RUNNERS, ETC. 

Castings weighing 100 tons and over are not made 
every day ; consequently there are very few foundries that 
may be considered as permanently equipped for such a 
task. 

Strange as it may appear, whenever a casting of such 
magnitude is needed it is almost invariably made where 
the facilities for producing work of that description arc 
far below the average. 

One reason for this is that, on account of their ex- 
traordinary bulk, such pieces are difficult to handle and 



68 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

ship; it becomes, therefore, very prudent to cast them as 
near as possible to the place for which they are intended. 

I have in my mind a casting that weighed 185 tons: it 
was required for a steel-works, and was made in a foundry 
close by, with no facilities whatever for casting a piece of 
such massive proportions. Special cupolas of large capac- 
ity were erected for the production of the molten iron, 
and taken down again when the casting was completed. 

But there are other difficulties in the way of the founder 
who may have been requested to produce this class of 
work, foremost of which is the fact that the ability of his 
workmen is not up to the standard of excellence that will 
warrant him in undertaking such jobs indiscriminately. 
He knows that to successfully melt and care for so large 
a quantity of molten iron something more than theoretic 
knowledge is required: there must be judgment, founded 
upon a wide experience in such matters, to insure success 
in all the various details connected with the process ; and 
he well knows that failure in any one of these details in- 
volves the loss of all. 

If a casting requiring 100 tons of iron was ordered at a 
foundry where the facilities for melting were adequate to 
the task, and where they were provided with cranes, suit- 
ably located and of the requisite power for handling the 
whole amount in four ladles holding 25 tons each, the 
matter is then simple enough; but foundries with such 
ample facilities are few in number, and we must therefore 
continue to devise schemes that will accomplish the de- 
sired end without the aid of such extraordinary helps. 

One chief help in accomplishing such a job in an or- 
dinary foundry, and which might with profit be more 
generally adopted, is the dam, temporarily or permanently 
constructed, for the purpose of collecting therein a larger 
quantity of molten iron than could possibly be handled in 
ladles. 



CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 69 

The reservoir of the reverberatory furnace can be util- 
ized as a dam also, by enlarging its dimensions for special 
occasions, and always insures a supply of good hot iron 
proportionate to its capacity. This cannot be as confidently 
said of the dam erected on the foundry floor, because the 
condition of the iron in the latter will depend upon the 
length of time taken to melt the whole quantity, as well as 
its temperature when tapped or poured therein. 

A thorough knowledge of the use of the dam will enable 
a very small foundry, with limited crane accommodations, 
to turn out some comparatively heavy work in a manner 
truly astonishing to those unaccustomed to their use. 

In order to show the entire details connected with a 
cast of 100 tons, and to make plain the method by which 
this may with safety be accomplished in an ordinarily 
heavy workshop, I have made at Fig. 18 a rude sketch 
of that portion of the foundry which is occupied by the 
mould to be poured, as well as the arrangement of the 
means for pouring. 

The mould, as will be seen, is round ; and as the object 
of this writing is to explain the method of pouring only, 
none of the necessary appendages for building such a mould 
are shown, as they would have interfered too much with 
the direct view of the whole system to be explained. 

Behind the wall, at A, is supposed to be a reverberatory 
furnace capable of holding 20 tons; and again behind 
the side wall, at B, are two cupolas, each of which melts 
8 tons per hour: this would yield 48 tons in three hours, 
and is the amount required to fill the dam shown at C. 
It is unnecessary to say that the iron must be allowed 
to collect in the cupolas before they are tapped into the 
dam, and that the greatest effort be made to melt the 
hottest iron possible. The above is supplemented by the 
two crane ladles D and E, each holding 1G tons. For the 



70 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 71 

reasons previously explained, the bare shells only are 
shown. 

This brings the total up to 100 tons of molten iron, 
which, if rightly managed, may be run into the mould with 
a dispatch that, to the uninitiated, appears marvellous. 

The ladle E, as well as furnace and dam, connect 
directly with the main runner F, but the ladle D is sup- 
posed to supply a supplementary gate, which leads to the 
lowest portions of the mould, with the view of well cover- 
ing such parts before the iron begins to drop down from 
the upper gates. 

Very much of the trouble attending this method of 
pouring arises from the inadequate runner space pro- 
vided. It is very important that all runners for this pur- 
pose should be capacious, and no effort should be spared 
to effect that object; the fewer the points which must be 
watched during the operation of pouring, the easier and 
safer will it be to conduct such operations. 

The main runner, shown at F, Fig. 18, is supposed to 
be about 14 feet inside diameter, and if made 18 inches 
wide by 2 feet deep would hold about 20 tons; the margin 
of safety in such a runner as this is very large, and that is 
what it should be for a casting of such magnitude. 

I have shown at Fig. 19 the correct form of runner best 
suited for work that is to be bored, and which must for 
obvious reasons be dropped from the top. It will be seen 
that a steep grade towards the inside is given at the 
bottom; this gives instant motion to the molten iron 
towards the runners, covering them at once, and thus pre- 
venting any possibility of their ' drawing air.' 

Runners, spouts, and pouring basins for these occasions 
should be prepared in dry sand or loam, if absolute safety 
and clean work is aimed for. Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are plan 
and elevations of the requisite parts for constructing a 
box in which to form the basins, as seen at G and H, 



72 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



Fig. 18. The end farthest from the ladle can be made 
open, as shown at Fig. 22; by so doing it becomes easy to 
make a connection with any other system of running 
which circumstances may necessitate. 

The dam seen at C, Fig. 18, is supposed to be 8 feet 3 
inches diameter and 4 feet deep, inside measurement, and 
will hold 48 tons, as before stated. It is provided with a 
shutter and lever for controlling the flow of iron, as seen; 
but in order that a better understanding of how to con- 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 




Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



struct such a dam may be arrived at, I have shown the 
same in plan and sectional elevation at Fig. 23. 

For ordinary occasions, smaller dams can be more tem- 
porarily constructed and made up with old sand, if extra 
care be taken to prevent the bottom from being cut with 
the first iron; but for larger jobs, and especially for such a 
one as we now have under consideration, a strong casing of 
boiler-plates bolted together, as seen at A, must be pro- 
vided, inside of which the dam must be formed by build- 
ing loose bricks below until the course which forms the 
bottom is reached, when it is advisable to set these closer 



CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 



73 



together on a bed of loam : this will prevent any tendency 
to leakage. 

The shutter shown at B, Fig. 23, may by some be 
thought too elaborate for such a purpose, but if they will 




Fig. 23. 

call to miud the numerous errors which have been made 
for waut of a reliable shutter, they will hesitate before 
venturing an adverse criticism. 

As seen, the shutter is a circular cast plate with strength- 
ening ribs across; these ribs also serve to hold the fire- 
bricks, which must be built between them. The lugs 
shown at C connect with the lever used for raising and 



74 TI1E IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

lowering the shutter. The details of this arrangement are 
shown in plan and elevation at Fig. 24; the line at A 
representing the top of the dam, B the fixing (secured to 
the tank) which supports the lever C, and D the lugs 
which correspond to those seen at C, Fig. 23. 

It is intended that the shutter shall be set in position 
with the 6-inch plug D, set behind when the wall is built 
and if proper provision is made it can be taken out (tc 
facilitate drying) after the wall has been loamed over. 
When the shutter has been built around in the manner 
described, there remains little to be done in the way of 
fitting; after it has been bricked and loamed on the 
inside, let it be thoroughly dried and set back in its 
original position. 

The round side being clean, there is very little friction; 
consequently it answers readily to the pressure of the 
lever, and enables the assistant to regulate the stream at 
will. 

By an arrangement such as described above the hole 
may be made very large with safety: this, of course, leaves 
nothing to chance, as any degree of speed in pouring may 
be obtained by simply raising or lowering the shutter. 

It is needless to say that all such dams as these must be 
thoroughly dried, and as near red-hot as possible when the 
first tap is made into them. As soon as the tap has been 
made, it is well to cover the surface of the iron with char- 
coal, the pieces of which are from 2 to 3 inches diameter, 
then fill the interstices with a finer sort, taking care that 
no open spots are left. As an extra precaution, cover the 
whole dam over the top with sheet-iron plates; by this 
means the iron can be kept in a good fluid condition for a 
very long time, providing it was hot from the start. 

It will be noticed that the top of the runner is 2 feet 
above the floor: this, of course, means that the bottom of 
the dam must be as much above that level as will allow a 



CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 



75 



gradual and easy descent in the direction of the runner; 
also, if the great advantage of having the cupolas tapped 




directly into the dam be desired, their bottoms must be 
slightly higher than the top of the dam, as seen at Fig. 18. 
The crane ladles which would be required for this occa- 
sion are somewhat larger than those commonly used, and 



76 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



for this reason it is well to notice some of the chief points 
which go towards making a good ladle. 

Figs. 25, 26 and 27 are plans and elevation of a 16-ton 
ladle, which, when lined with brick and covered with a thin 
daubing of loam, must measure 54 inches diameter and 56 
inches deep. 

The gearing is preferably arranged so that the operator 
may stand on the side whilst he turns the ladle. Two 
very bad features in many geared ladles are corrected in 
the one shown; usually the bearing at A, Fig. 25, is too 




Fig. 25. 



short, in consequence of which both bearing and shaft are 
destroyed in quick time: this one is 12 inches long. 

The other common error is to make the worm-wheel B 
too small in diameter: this makes it very hard to work, 
besides causing greater wear and tear on the rest of the 
machine; the worm-wheel for this ladle is 3 feet 6 inches 
diameter. By all means let all the parts of a geared ladle 
be machined in the best way: it is a mistake to think that 
anything else will do. 

The shell is made of f-inch boiler-plate, with a bottom 



CASTINGS OF OWE HUNDRED TOWS. 77 

\ inch thick, and the dimensions of the principal parts are 
as follows: Lifting eye (C), 9 inches by 4 inches, made 
from 3-inch round steel; beam (D), 10 inches deep in the 
middle, 2| inches thick; slings (EF), 2|- inches diameter; 
middle band (G), 8 inches by 3 inches; shafts on band 
(ff), 4 inches diameter; upper and lower bands (IJ), 6 
inches by 1£ inches; bottom bands (K), G inches by \\ 
inches; these Jatter cross each other underneath, as shown 
by broken lines in Fig. 25, and extend upwards to the 
middle band, resting thereon by a toe provided for the 
purpose, being further secured thereto by bolts, as seen 
at L, Fig. 26. 

This form of lifting eye works more advantageously than 
any other: it is always in position for use, and the oval 
shape favors rapid handling, and is not as liable to fract- 
ure as round eyes arc. Be sure that £-inch holes are 
drilled on the bottom for the escape of steam : this saves 
the bottom from raising when there is moisture lurking 
there. 

The style of lip shown at Mis to be recommended, on 
account of the favorable stream which is formed by it 
when pouring. It is well known that if the pouring is to 
be rapid from the start, most ladles at the beginning 
deliver the iron in a wide sheet, making it necessary to 
construct very wide basins: this form of lip controls the 
steam by preventing the spreading spoken of, and makes 
the operation of pouring much more pleasant. 

It may be well to state just here that this style of ladle 
is the best for all sizes of crane ladles: all the difference 
to be made is to suit the strength to the capacity. I have 
a decided objection to all crane ladles that are not geared, 
for they are not only dangerous tools to work with, but 
they invariably require about 100 per cent more help to 
manage them. 

It is wise to put a brick lining into all ladles down to 8 



78 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



tons, below which capacity the bottom can be safely made 
by laying, first, about one inch of fine cinders, over which 
let two inches of soft silica sand be spread very evenly, 
and then rammed down hard. Such a bottom as this will 
never fail if the holes are kept open and the sand be 
thoroughly dried before using; an ev<m daubing of one 
inch will suffice on the sides. 

The following table gives the dimensions, inside tlie 
lining, of ladles from 25 pounds to 16 tons capacity, and 
will be found useful to all who do not care to make the 
necessary calculations. It will be well to notice that all 
the ladles are supposed to be straight ones, after the man- 
ner shown in the engravings. 



Capacity. 


Diameter. 


Deptli. 


16 tons 


54 inches. 


50 in dies. 


14 " 


52 " 


53 " 


12 " 


49 " 


50 " 


10 " 


4<> 


4S " 


8 " 


43 " 


44 " 


6 " 


39 " 


40 " 


4 " 


34 " 


35 " 


3 " 


31 " 


32 " 


2 " 


27 " 


2^ " 


U" 


244 " 


25 " 


1 " 


22 " 


22 " 


1" 


20 " 


20 " 




17 " 


17 " 


i" 


131 " 


131 " 


300 pounds. ... 


1 1* " 


111 " 


250 " 


10J " 


11 " 


200 " 


10 " 


101 " 


150 " 


9 " 


91 *' 


100 " 


8 


8; " 




7 " 


71 " 


50 " .... 


6.V " 


6V " 


35 " 


5.V " 


(5 


25 " 


5 " 


51 " 



It will be natural to suppose that the ladles D and E, 
Fig. 18, have to be filled by means other than those we 



CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 



79 



have spoken of; such means may be one or perhaps two 
cupolas, in addition to the ones mentioned. 

The correct time to start the several furnaces is an im- 
portant matter, and should be figured out as closely as 
possible. This can always be done with a measurable de- 




Fig. 26. 

gree of certainty if the reverberatory furnace has been used 
previously, but should the latter be a new furnace, great 
care and judgment must be exercised to ascertain about 
how long it will take the 20 tons to melt. This done, the 
cupolas must be started at just such times as will bring 
about as even a finish as possible. 

And now, supposing that the dam is full, the two ladles 
filled and in position, and all the iron melted in the re- 



80 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

verberatory furnace, place a reliable man at the lever, who 
will be ready to obey orders, and have all the tools ready 
for opening the tap-hole at the reverberatory, should it 
prove refractory,— which will certainly not be the case if 
the instructions previously given for making up the tap- 
hole bave been strictly followed out. 

Let ladle D commence first to fill the bottom, and con- 
tinue to pour until all is out. Immediately after the first 
ladle is started, open darn and furnace simultaneously, 
until the runner is about half full, when the dam may be 
checked, and allow the reverberatory to run clear out; but 
should it be found that the stream from the furnace is in- 
sufficient to keep up the requisite amount of head press- 



Fig. 27. 

ure, the dam can be kept open sufficient to effect this 
object, gradually increasing the speed at the dam as the 
stream slackens at the furnace, until when all the iron is 
out of the latter the dam may be emptied, and ladle D 
allowed to finish the cast. 

The important object gained by distributing the iron as 
above described is, that the furnace, dam, and one of the 
ladles are sure of being cleaned out, thus leaving but one 
stream to attend to; the mould can then be filled to a 
nicety, without leaving too much iron in the runner. 

Any surplus in the ladle can be used for other moulds 
which may have been purposely made for the occasion. 

As it is barely possible to maintain the legitimate head 
pressure up to the last without leaving considerable iron 
in the runner, and as the runner in this case is unavoida- 
bly bulky, provision must be made for letting off the same 
into pig beds, formed in the immediate vicinity of the 



CASTINGS. 81 

mould, as seen at /, Fig. 18. This at once converts what 
would otherwise have been an ugly piece of scrap to deal 
with, into very desirable pig iron, which may be broken 
into smaller pieces whilst hot. 



CASTINGS. 

HOW TO OBTAIN" THEIR MEASUREMENT AND RECKON 
THEIR WEIGHTS; ALSO, THE NATURE AND QUALITIES 
OF THE MATERIALS USED IN PRODUCING THEM, 
PERCENTAGE IN THE FOUNDRY, IMPORTANT FACTS, 
FORMULAS, TABLES, ETC. 

Every moulder should be able to reckon the weight of 
the casting he makes; how many of us lack that ability 
need not be discussed here. 

Some one says, "There is no royal road to learning." 
This is true indeed, and he who would obtain the ability to 
measure and weigh the work committed to his charge 
must at least master as much arithmetic and mensuration 
as will enable him to profitably utilize the rules laid down 
for his guidance in these matters. 

To such as are ignorant altogether of these subjects the 
following short treatise on decimal fractions and kindred 
subjects will be of infinite service; for unless we know 
the meaning of the principal mathematical characters, the 
relation of vulgar to decimal fractions, with some knowledge 
of how to work these rules, all information of importance 
is denied us ; as almost all formulas are expressed by these 
signs, and their solution can only be determined by correct 
rules. 

Tt is not expected that even the most intelligent amongst 



82 THE IKON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

us will be prepared for the immediate solution of every 
arithmetical problem that presents itself during an active 
life in the foundry. No matter how thorough our educa- 
tion may have been at the first, rules and formulas will 
slip from the memory, and every day's experience gives 
additional evidence of the truth of the old adage, that 
"the key that rests, rusts." To the latter the following 
reminders will no doubt be found acceptable at times, and 
save an endless amount of annoyance. 

The character or sign = (called equality) denotes that 
the respective quantities between which it is placed are 
equal; as, 1 ton = 2000 lbs. = 32,000 oz. 

The sign + (called plus, or more) signifies that the 
numbers between which it is placed are to be added 
together; as, 9 + 6 (read 9 plus G) = 15. The sign — 
(called minus, or less) denotes that the quantity which it 
precedes is to be subtracted; as, 15 — 6 (read 15 minus 6) 
= 9. 

The sign X denotes that the numbers between which it 
is placed are to be multiplied together; as, 5 X 3 (read 5 
multiplied by 3) = 15. 

The sign -f- signifies division; 15-^-3 (15 divided by 3) 
= 5. Numbers placed like a vulgar fraction also denote 
division, the upper number being the dividend and the 
lower the divisor; as, - 1 -/- = 5. 

The signs : :: : (called proportionals) denote propor- 
tionality; as, 2 : 5 :: 6:15; signifying that the number 2 
bears the same proportion to 5 as 6 does to 15, or in other 
words, as 2 is to 5 so is 6 to 15. 

The sign (called the bar or vinculum) signifies 

that the numbers, etc., over which it is placed are to be 
taken together; as, 8 — 2 + 4 = 10, or 6 X 3 + 5 = 23. 

The sign . (called decimal point) signifies, when placed 
before a number, that that number has some power of 10 
for its denominator. .1 is T \, .17 is T Vo, etc. 



CASTINGS. 



83 



DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

In decimal fractions the whole number is supposed to be 
divided into ten equal parts, and every one of these ten 
parts is supposed to be subdivided into other ten equal 
parts, etc. 

The whole numbers being thus divided (by imagination) 
into 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., equal parts, become the de- 
nominators to the decimal fractions; thus, -fa, jfa, if oo> 

To oo o> cto- 

Now these denominators are never set down, only the 
numerators, and they are either distinguished or separated 
from the ivliole number by a point, called the decimal 
point. 

Thus 5.4 is 5 T 4 ff , and 0.7 is T ^, 35.05 is 35^^, or 5 and 
decimal t 4 q, seven tenths, and 35 and decimal five one 
hundredths. 

Before proceeding further in notation, it will be con- 
venient for the learner to consider the following table, 
which shows the very foundation of decimal fractions: 



Whole Numbers. 


Decimal Numbers. 


7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


g 


w 


H 


H 


H 


H 


g 


d 


-3 


w 


H 


H 


a 


g 




s 


CD 
B 

CO 


o 


5 


fD 

B 

CO 




B_ 


CO 


c 


c 

c 


E 


B 


B: 


o° 
a 
co 


fD 

CO 


O 
l-t> 

H 


CO 

p 

CO 


-i 
fD 

CO 




CO 


CO 




fD 

5* 


DO 
» 

B 

2r 


O 

B 

CO 




o" 

CO 




o 


E" 










CD 




CO 




B 


t? 






l-t> 


o 
















CO 


o 








c 










C 
















H 


co 










i-i 








p~ 


CO 






o 


P 
B 










a 








CO 


p 
B 








Cu 










(X 
















CO 


co 










o 
















P 

D 












g" 










CO 


















p 
















to 












o 
5" 















84 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

The mixed number at the head of this table would 
read seven million six hundred and fifty-four thousand 
three hundred and twenty-one; and decimal, two hundred 
and thirty-four thousand five hundred and sixty-seven 
million ths. 

By this table it is evident that as in whole members every 
degree from the units place increases towards the left hand 
by a ^ewfold proportion, so in decimal parts every degree 
is decreased towards the right hand by the same proportion, 
viz., by tens. 

Therefore these decimal parts, or fractions, are really 
more homogeneal or agreeing with whole numbers than 
vulgar fractions, for all plain numbers are in effect but 
decimal parts one to another. That is, suppose any series 
of equal numbers, as 444, etc. The first 4 towards the left 
is ten times the value of the 4 in the middle, and that 4 in 
the middle is ten times the value of the last 4 to the right 
of it, and but the tenth part of that 4 on the left. 

Therefore all of them may be taken either as whole 
numbers or part of a whole number: if whole numbers, 
then they must be set down without any decimal, or sepa- 
rating point between them; thus, 444. But if a whole 
number and one part, or fraction, place a point betwixt 
them thus, 44.4, which signifies 44 whole numbers and 4 
tenths of a unit. Again, if two places of parts be re- 
quired, separate them with a decimal point; thus, 4.44, 
viz., 4 units and 44 hundredths of a unit, or one. 

From hence (duly compared with the table) it will be 
easy to conceive that decimal parts take their denomination 
from the place of their last figure ; that is, .5 = fa .56 = 
^\, and .056 = T -| § 7 parts of a unit. 

Cijriiers annexed to decimal parts do not alter their 
value; as, .50 and .500 or .5000, etc., are each but 5 tenths 

r.f o unit fnr f>JL. — A. and JJJL — _5_ or 5 o_o_o_ = 5^ 
or a unii, ioi -^ — ^ t) , <*nu y 000 — io» UJ loooo — t^ # 



CASTINGS. 85 

But ciphers prefixed to decimal parts decrease their value 
by removing them further from the decimal point; thus, 
5 = 5 tenths, .05 = 5 hundredths, .005 = 5 thousandths, 
and .0005 = 5 ten thousandths; consequently, the true 
value of all decimal fractions, or parts, are known by their 
distance from the units place, which being rightly under- 
stood, the rest will be easy. 

ADDITION AND SUBTEACTION OF DECIMALS. 

In setting down the proposed numbers to be added or sub- 
tracted great care must be taken to place every figure directly 
underneath those of the same value, whether they be mixed 
numbers or pure decimal parts, and to perform that due 
regard must be had to the decimal points which ought 
always to stand in a direct line under each other and to the 
right hand of them carefully place the decimal parts, ac- 
cording to their respective values or distance from unity. 

Rule. — Add or subtract as if they were all whole num- 
bers, and from their sum or difference cut off as many 
decimal parts as are the most in any of the given numbers. 

ADDITION. 

Examples. — Let it be required to find the sum of the 
following numbers : 

34.5 

65.3 

128.7 

95.0 



7.9 



Answer 419.2 



When the decimal parts proposed to be added (or sub- 
tracted), do not have the same number of places, you may, 



S6 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



for convenience of operation, fill the void places by annex- 
ing ciphers. 



Without ciphers. 


With cipher? 


45.07 


45.0700 


50.758 


50.7580 


123.0057 


123.0057 


74.702 


74.7020 


24.8 


24.8000 


.ns. 318.3357 


Ans. 318.3357 



EXAMPLES IN SUBTRACTION. 



From 437.5 

Take 89.657 



Remains.. 347.843 

From.... 345.7578 
Take 157. 



Remains.. 188.7578 





Without 


With 




ciphers. 


ciphers. 


75.0534 


562. 


562.0000 


57.875 


93.5784 


93.5784 


17.1784 


468.4216 


468.4216 


345.7578 


0.547893 


1.000000 


157.0000 


0.439758 


0.997543 


188.7578 


0.108135 


0.002457 



MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. 

Whether the numbers to be multiplied are pure decimals 
or mixed, multiply them as if they were all whole numbers, 
and for the true value of their product observe this 

Rule. — Cut off — that is, separate by the decimal point — as 
many places of decimal parts in the product as there are 
decimal parts in the multiplier and multiplicand counted 
together. 



CASTINGS 87 

EXAMPLES. 

(1) Multiply 3.024 by 2.23. (2) Multiply 32.12 by 24.3. 



3.024 




32.12 


2.23 




2.43 


9072 


9636 


6048 




12848 


6048 


ans. 


6424 


6.74352, 


780.516, ans, 



The reason why such a number of decimal parts must be 
cut off in the product may be easily deduced from these 
examples. 

In example 1, it is evident that 3, the ivliole number in 
the multiplicand, being multiplied with 2, the wliole num- 
ber in the multiplier, can produce but 6 (viz., 3x2 = 6); 
so that of necessity all the other figures in the product 
must be decimal parts, according as the rule directs. Or, 
the rule is evident from the multiplication of ivliole num- 
bers only. Thus, suppose 3000 were to be multiplied with 
200, their product will be 600.000; that is, there will be as 
many cip7iers in the product as there are in both multiplier 
and multiplicand ; now, if instead of those ciphers in the 
multiplier and multiplicand we suppose the like number 
of decimal parts, then it follows that there ought to be 
the same number of decimal parts in the product as there 
were ciphers in both factors. 

Again, the rule may be otherwise made evident from 
vulgar fractions; thus, let 32.12 be multiplied with 24.3 and 
their product will be 780.516, as in example 2, above. Now 
32.12 = 32 3 W, and 24.3 = 24fV, which being brought into 
improper fractions, will become 32 T W = &-$$., and 24 T 3 ^ = 

3LA3. ThPTl 3JLLS. V 2_4_3 — "J.S0516 K n f 780516 — "TSO 5 1 6 
10 . -Llltill 100 A- 10 " T000~> DUI "1000 ' 8U T000"> 

viz., 780.516, as before. Any of these three ways sufficiently 
prove the truth of the above said rule, etc. 



88 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

It sometimes happens that in multiplying decimal parts 
with decimal parts, there will not be as many figures in 
the product as there ought to be places of decimal parts, 
by the rule. In that case you must supply their defect by 
prefixing ciphers to the product, as in these examples: 

.2305 .0347 

.2435 .0236 



11825 2082 

7095 1041 

9460 694 

4730 



.05758775 



.00081892 



When any proposed number of decimals is to be multi- 
plied with 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., it is only removing the 
decimal point in the multiplicand so many places to the 
right hand as there are ciphers in the multiplier. Thus, 
.578 X 10 = 5.78. And .578 X 100 = 57.8. Again .578 X 
1000 = 578. 

DIVISION OF DECIMALS. 

Division is accounted the most difficult part of decimal 
arithmetic. In order, therefore, to make it plain, it will 
be best to examine the chief principles of the rule. 

Division is the rule by which one number may be speed- 
ily subtracted from another as many times as it is con- 
tained therein; that is, it speedily discovers how often one 
number is contained in another, and to perform that there 
are two numbers required to be given. One of them is that 
number which is proposed to be divided, and is called the 
dividend; the other is that number by which the said divi- 
dend is to be divided, and is called the divisor. By com- 
paring these two, viz., the dividend and the divisor 
together, there arises a third number called the quotient, 



CASTINGS. 89 

which shows how often the divisor is contained in the 
dividend, or into what number of equal parts the dividend 
is then divided. 

The quotient figure is always of the same value or 
degree, with that figure of the dividend under which the 
units place of its product stand. As for instance, let 294 
be divided by 4, thus: 



So o c 



294 

28 



This is not 7, but 70, because the units place of 
4x7 stands under the tens place of the dividend. 



14 ( 
12 \ 



( 7 I 

3 This is only 3. 



2, remainder. Hence 73| is the quotient. 

Now if to the remainder 2 there is annexed a cipher 
(thus, 2.0), and then divided on, it must needs follow that 
the units place of the product arising from the divisor 
into the quotient will stand under the annexed cipher ; 
consequently, the quotient figure will be of the same value 
or degree with the place of that cipher. But that is the 
next below the units place, therefore the quotient figure is 
of the next degree, or place below unity; that is, in the 
first place of decimal parts, thus, 4)2.0( .5; so that 
4)294.0(73.5, the true quotient required. 

This being well understood, division of decimals may in 
all the various cases be easily performed. 

Definition. — If that number which divides another be 
multiplied with another number which is quoted, their 
product will be the number divided. 

This definition alone, if compared with the rule for mul- 
tiplication, will afford a general rule for discovering the 
true value of the quotient figure in division of decimals. 



90 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



GENERAL RULE. 

The place of decimal parts in the divisor and quotient 
being counted together, must always be equal in number 
with those of the dividend. 

From this general rule ariseth four cases. 

Case 1. — When the places of parts in the divisor and 
dividend are equal, the quotient will be whole numbers, as 
in these 

EXAMPLES 

8.45) 295.75 (35, ans. 0.0078) .4368 (56, ans. 

2535 390 



4225 468 

4225 468 

Case 2. — When the places of parts in the dividend ex- 
ceed those in the divisor, cut off the excess for decimal 
parts in the quotient, as in these 

EXAMPLES. 



24.3) 780.516 ( 
729 


32.12 
.534) 


.30438 ( 
2670 


436) 

.57 


34246.056.(78.546 
3052 


515 
486 


3726 

3488 


291 
243 


2380 


3738 
3738 


2180 


486 
486 


2005 
1744 




2616 
2616 



CASTINGS. 91 

Case 3. — When there are not so many places of decimals 
in the dividend as are in the divisor, annex ciphers to the 
dividend to make them equal. Then the quotient will be 
whole numbers as in case 1. 

Examples. — Let it be required to divide 192.1 by 7.684 
and 441 by .7875. 

7.684)192.100(25, ans. .7875)441.0000(560, ans. 

153 68 393 75 



38 420 47 250 

38 420 47 250 

Case 4. — If, after division is finished, there are not so 
many figures in the quotient as there ought to be places of 
decimals by the general rule, supply their defect by prefix- 
ing ciphers to it. 

Examples. — Let it be required to divide 7.25406 by 957. 
957)7.25406(758, or with ciphers prefixed, as per rule, 

6 699 .00758, the true quotient. 

5550 

4785 



7656 
7656 

Divide .0007475 by .575. 

.575).0007475(13 or .0013, the true quotient required. 
575 



1725 
1725 



Note. — When decimal numbers are to be divided by 10, 
100, 1000, 10000, etc., that is, when the divisor is a unit 
with ciphers, division is performed by removing or placing 



92 THE IEON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the decimal point in the dividend so many places towards 
the left hand as there are ciphers in the divisor; thus, 

10)5784(578.4, 100)5784(57.84, 

1000)5784(5.784, 10000) 5784(. 5784, etc. 

It will be seen that these operations are the direct con 
verse to those at the end of multiplication. 

TO REDUCE VULGAR FRACTIONS TO THEIR EQUIVALENT 
DECIMALS, AND THE CONTRARY. 

Any vulgar fraction being given, it may be reduced or 
changed into decimal parts equivalent to it ; thus : 

Rule. — Annex ciphers to the numerator and then divide 
it by the denominator; the quotient will be the decimal 
parts equivalent to the given fraction, or at least so near 
it as may be thought necessary to approach. 

Examples. — It is required to change or reduce f-inch 
into the decimal of an inch. 

OPERATION. 

4)3.00(.75, ans. The decimal parts required, that is, 

2 8 f = T Vo = -75 inch. 



20 
20 
Again, \ — .5, thus 2)1.0(.5; and \ — .25, thus 

4)1.00(.25. 
Suppose it were required to change 4- into decimals : 
7)4.0000000000(.5714285714 + = f 

Note. — When the last figure of the divisor (that is, the 
denominator of the proposed fraction) happens to be one 
of these figures, viz., 1, 3, 7, or 9, as in this example, then 
the decimal parts can never be precisely equal to the given 
fraction, yet by continuing the division on you may bring 
them to be very near the truth. 

For all practical purposes in the foundry, three places 



CASTINGS. 93 

of decimals are sufficiently near, the operation being con- 
siderably shortened by leaving out the rest. 

When a decimal does not terminate as in the example 
above, the sign plus (-(-) is annexed, which indicates that 
the division could be continued. 

TO KEDUCE A DECIMAL TO A COMMON FRACTION. 

Rule. — Erase the decimal point and write under the 
numerator its decimal denominator and reduce the fraction 
to its lowest term. 

Example. — Reduce .125 inch to its equivalent common 
fraction. 

Operation. — .125 = T WV = tVo — tV = is inch, ans. 

TO REDUCE A SIMPLE OR COMPOUND NUMBER TO A DECI- 
MAL OF A HIGHER DENOMINATION. 

Rule for Simple Number. — Divide by the number of 
parts in the next higher denominations, continuing the 
operation as far as required. 

Example. — Reduce 1 foot to the decimal of a yard. 



3 



1.000 



.333 + yard, ans. 

Rule for Compound Numbers. — Reduce them all to the 
lowest denomination, and proceed as for one denomination. 

Example. — Reduce 15 feet 9f inches to the decimal of v- 
yard. 

OPERATION. 

feet. inches. qrs. 

15 9 3 

12 in. = 1 foot. 





189 






4 qrs. = 


1 inch. 


4 


759.00 




12 


189.7500 




3 


15.8125 





5.2708 + yard, ans. 



94 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

TO FIND THE VALUE OF A DECIMAL IN WHOLE NUMBERS 
OF LOWER DENOMINATIONS. 

Rule. — Multiply the decimal by that number which will 
reduce it to the next lower denomination, and point off as 
in multiplication of decimals. 

Then multiply the decimal part of the product, and 
point off as before. So continue till the decimal is reduced 
to the denomination required. 

The several whole numbers of the successive products 
will be the answer. 

Examples. — 1. What is the volume of .140 cubic feet in 
inches ? 

OPERATION. 
.140 

1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 



1120 
280 
980 
140 

241.920 cubic inches, ans. 

2. What is the value of .00129 of a foot, and also the 
;ilue of .015625 of an inch ? 



OPERATION. 




OPERATION. 


.00129 




.015625 


12 inches = 


1 foot. 


64 



.01548 inches, ans. 62500 

93750 



Answer. 1.000000 = ^ of an in. 
By the same rule .75 of a foot = 9 inches, .25 of a ton = 
500 lbs., .5 of an inch = £ inch, .0625 of an inch = T \ 
inch, etc. 



CASTINGS. 



95 



The following table of equivalents (found by the fore- 
going rules) will be found very useful : 

VULGAR FRACTIONS OF 1, OR UNITY, AND THEIR DECIMAL 
EQUIVALENTS. 



■fe = .015625 
^ = .03125 
T V = .0625 
£ =.125 


T 5 ¥ = .3125 
f = .375 
iV = .4375 
* =.5 


H = -6875 
| = .75 

If = .8125 
£ = .875 


T \ = .1875 
* = .25 


T V = .5625 
| = .625 


tf = .9375 
1 = 1.0000 



EXPLANATION OF THE RULES IN MENSURATION USED 
FOR FINDING THE WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS OF ALL 
SHAPES AND DIMENSIONS. 

Before we can rightly apply the foregoing rules in arith- 
metic to the determining of the weights of castings, we 
must first ascertain the number of cubic inches contained 
in the object. Then by referring to the table of weights 
and strength of material (found near the end of this chap- 
ter, we find, in the first column, the weight of one cubic 
inch of whatever metal we are going to cast with. This is 
used as a multiplier, and gives us the exact weight in 
pounds avoirdupois of the total number of cubic inches 
contained in the casting. 

To obtain correctly the number of cubic inches of cast- 
ings more or less irregular in shape, it is necessary that the 
operator should have some little knowledge of mensuration; 
but as most of the books devoted to that subject are written 
for the high schools and colleges, in language hard to un- 
derstand by the unlearned, the information they contain 
seldom reaches the ordinary moulder; in fact, boys fresh 
from school who enter our foundries are not always suffi- 
ciently advanced in their studies to know very much of this 



96 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

subject. It not unfrequently happens that older boys Avith 
a knowledge of the rules in mensuration firmly fixed in 
their minds fail in making a practical application of 
their schooling when in the foundry. 

In order to make this subject plain to such as are igno- 
rant of the rules in mensuration, I propose to give as many 
(full) examples as will enable the student to calculate the 
exact Aveight of every description of casting, and as a means 
of impressing the subject more firmly on his mind, every 
example will be accompanied by a full explanation of the 
rules which govern each particular case. 

The following definitions, properly understood, will ma- 
terially help the understanding, and make the study of 
these subjects much more easy and pleasant. 

Mensuration. — Mensuration is the process of determin- 
ing the areas of surfaces and the solidity or volume of 
solids. 

A plane figure is an enclosed plane surface ; if bounded 
by straight lines only, it is called a rectilineal figure or 
polygon. 

The perimeter of a figure is its boundary or contour. 

Three-sided polygons are called triangles, those of four 
sides quadrilaterals, those of five sides pentagons, etc. 

Triangles. — An equilateral triangle is one whose sides 
are all equal, as CAD, Fig. 28. 

Note. — The line AB drawn from the angle A, perpen- 
dicular to the base CD, is the altitude of the triangle CAD. 

An isosceles triangle is one which has two of its sides 
equal, as EFG, Fig. 29. 

A scalene triangle is one which has its three sides un- 
equal, as HIT, Fig. 30. 

A right-angled triangle is one which has a right angle, 
us ELM, Fig. 31. 

To Find the Area of a Triangle. — Multiply the base by 
half the altitude and the product will be the area. 



CASTINGS. 97 

Now, supposing we have a casting answering to the form 
of an equilateral triangle, Fig. 28; the base CD measuring 
36 inches, the altitude AB 24 inches, and the thickness 3 
inches, what weight will such a casting be in cast iron ? 
We proceed thus: 

OPERATION. 

Base 36 

Half of altitude 12 

Total area in superficial square 

inches 432 

Thickness in inches 3 



Total cubic inches 12 9 6 

"Weight of a cubic inch, cast iron . .263 



3888 

7776 
2592 

Total weight in pounds. . 3 4 0.8 4 8, ans., nearly 341 lbs. 

If we desire to ascertain the weight of such a casting in 
gold, we simply find the weight of a cubic inch of gold, in 
the table, viz., .696 for a multiplier, and proceed thus: 
1296 X .696 = 902.016, or slightly over 902 pounds for 
gold. 

Castings having the form of an isosceles triangle, Fig. 29, 
are to be figured as in the preceding example. 

All such as take the form of a scalene triangle, Fig. 30, 
must be proceeded with after this manner : Let a perpen- 
dicular be drawn from i" to the base, and proceed to form a 
rectangle about the figure, as shown by the broken lines. 
You now have two rectangles, one on each side of the per- 
pendicular from /, and, as triangle is equivalent to one 
half of a rectangle having an equal base and an equal al- 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Fig. 28. 





Fiq. 30 




Fig. 31. 




- i—— '. 



Pig. 33. 




Fig. 34. 




Fig. 35. 




Fig. 36. 



~ 



1 




Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. 




Fig. 40. 




~ 



Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 



CASTINGS. 99 

titude with the triangle, it is evident that one half each of 
the rectangles added together will give the area of such a 
triangle. 

This once properly understood makes the mensuration 
of angles very simple. Of course, when the superficial area 
of all such figures is procured, it only remains to multiply 
by the number of inches thick, and then by the weight of 
a cubic inch, as before directed, to obtain the exact weight 
in pounds. 

This brings us to the right-angled triangle, Fig. 31, which, 
as seen by the broken lines, is but the half of the rectangle 
whose base is KL and sides LM\ therefore, if the weight 
of a casting is required that has the form of a right-angled 
triangle, multiply the base KL by the altitude LM, and 
divide the product by 2 for the area, then proceed as in 
the preceding cases for total cubic inches and weight. 

It will be clearly understood from the above that the 
area of all quadrilateral figures whose opposite sides are 
parallel, such as the square, rhombus, rhomboid, and rec- 
tangle, is found by multiplying the base with the altitude. 

Regular- polygons are named after the number of sides 
contained in the figure, those with 3 sides being triangle ; 
4, square ; 5, pentagon ; 6, hexagon; 7, heptagon; 8, oc- 
tagon; 9, nonagon ; 10, decagon ; 11, undecagon, and 12, 
duodecagon. 

The rule for finding the area of a regular polygon is the 
same for any number of sides, so that one illustration will 
be sufficient to show how all such castings may be measured 
and their respective weights found. 

KULE TO FIND THE AREA OF POLYGONS. 

Multiply the sum of the sides or perimeter of the poly- 
gon by the perpendicular, demitted from its centre to one 
of its sides, aud half the product will be the area. 



100 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Example. — Required the weight of a casting, in iron, 
having the form of a regular hexagon ABCDEF, Fig. 32, 
whose side AB is 20^ inches, and perpendicular PO is 
17£ inches, thickness 1 inch. 

OPERATION. 

Length of side AB 2 0.5 

Number of sides 6 



Sum of sides 1 2 3.0 

Length of perpendicular 1 7.7 5 

6150 
8610 
8610 
1230 



| 2 1 8 3.2 5 0, product. 



Half of product— area 1 9 1.6 2 5 

Weight of a cubic inch, cast iron .2 6 3 

3 2 7 4 8 7 5 
6549750 
2183240 



Total weight in lbs 2 8 7.0 9 6 3 7 5, ans. 

If such a casting were wanted 1 inch thick in lead, then 
the area, 1091.625 inches, must be multiplied by .410, the 
weight of a cubic inch of that metal, as found in the first 
column of the table before mentioned. 

THE CIECLE. 

Before attempting to determine the weights of castings 
that are circular in shape, it will be necessary to explain 



CASTINGS. 101 

some of the very important principles connected with this 
interesting figure. These thoroughly understood will make 
a solution of the problems much easier. 

In the first place, there is no figure that affords a greater 
variety of useful properties than the circle, nor is there any 
that contains so large an area within the same perimeter or 
outer boundary. 



TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE AND DIAMETER OF A 
CIRCLE. 

The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

The diameter of a circle is found by multiplying the 
circumference by .31831, or dividing by 3.1416. 

Examples. — If the diameter of a circle be 12 feet, what 
is the circumference ? 

OPERATION. 

Decimal multiplier 3.1 4 1 6 

Diameter 12 

Circumference required 3 7.6 9 9 2 feet, ans. 

If the circumference of a circle be 45 feet, what is the 
diameter ? 

OPERATION. 

Decimal multiplier 3 18 3 1 

Circumference 4 5 

159155 
12 7 3 2 4 

Diameter required ..... 1 4.3 2 3 9 5 feet, ans. 



102 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIECLE. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 
and the product will be the area. 

Note. — The square of any number is that number multi- 
plied by itself, as 12 X 12 = 144, etc. 

Example. — What is the area of a circle whose diameter 
is 106? 

OPERATION. 

Diameter 106 

106 



636 

1060 

Square of diameter 11236 

Decimal multiplier 7 8 5 4 

44944 
6180 
89888 
78652 



Total area 8 8 2 4.7 5 4 4, ans 

A right application of the rules for circumference, diam- 
eter, and areas of circles will enable us to arrive at the 
correct weight of any cylindrical castings, such as pipes, 
columns, wheel-rims, cylinders, etc., as well as circular 
plates and solids. 

Again, a combination of all the rules is practically all 
that is needed for ascertaining the weight of all flat-bot- 
tomed tanks, backs, boilers, pans, etc., either round or 
square, as well as solids of similar form. 

Let us proceed to find the weight of an 18-inch round 



CASTINGS. 103 

column 1£ inches thick and 10 feet long. In order to 
obtain the correct weight it is necessary that we take the 
centre or middle of the thickness for our line of diameter 
or circu inference ; so it is customary to add the thickness of 
the casting to the inner diameter and by this means obtain 
the correct working diameter, but this is when we speak of 
castings such as cylinders, pipes, etc., the size of which are 
based on the inside diameter and not on the outside, as is 
the case in columns, wheel-rims, etc. 

In the latter case it becomes necessary to subtract the 
thickness from the outside diameter, which, when done, 
makes the operation of finding the weight of an 18-inch 
column equivalent to finding the weight of a 15-inch 
pipe of the same thickness. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF CYLINDERS, PIPES, WHEEL- 
RIMS, ROUND COLUMNS, ETC. 

Rule 1. — For castings the size of which is based on the 
inside measurement. 

To the inner diameter add the thickness of metal, mul- 
tiply by 3.1416 for circumference and the product by the 
thickness. This gives the number of superficial inches 
contained in the end section of the casting, which, when 
multiplied by the length, gives the total cubic inches con- 
tained in the whole, the weight of which is obtained by 
multiplying by the weight of a cubic inch of the metal to 
be used (found in the first column of table). 

Rule 2. — For castings, the size of which are based on 
the outside measurement. 

From the outer diameter subtract the thickness of metal 
and continue the operation as directed in Rule 1. 

Example. — What is the weight (in cast iron) of a column 
18 inches in diameter, 1£ inches thick, and 10 feet long ? 



104 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

OPEP. ATION. 

Diameter of column in inches 18 

Subtract thickness 1.5 = 1^ in. 

Working diameter 1 6.5 

Decimal multiplier for circumference. . 3.14 16 

990 
165 
660 
165 
495 

Circumference 5 1.8 3 6 4 

Thickness 1.5 = 1 \ in. 

25918200 
5 1.83 6 40 

Superficial inches in end section ... 7 7.7 5 4 6 
One foot in length 12 

Cubic inches in 1 foot long 9 3 3.0 5 5 2 

.26= weight 

cu. in. 

5598331200 
1866110400 

Weight of 1 foot long 24 2.5 9435200 

10 

Total weight in pounds ... 2 4 2 5.9 4 3 5 2 0, ans. 

Note. — The decimal multiplier is here changed from 
.263 lb. to .26 lb. This shortens the sum considerably 
without much loss practically. 

Thus making the total weight of a column 18 inches 
diameter, 1 I inches thick, and 10 feet long, to be 2426 
pounds, nearly. 



CASTINGS. 105 

It will be seen that I first get the weight of one foot in 
length, which is found to be 242| pounds, and then mul- 
tiply by length of the column. This is a very good plan, 
as it furnishes very useful data for future reference. 

What is the weight of a cast-iron ring or cylinder 86 
inches inside diameter, 2 inches thick, and 12 inches deep ? 

OPERATION. 

Inside diameter of ring 8 6 

Thickness added 2 

Working diameter 8 8 

Decimal multiplier for circumference 3.1 4 1 6 

5 2 8 
88 
3 5 2 
88 
2 64 

Circumference 2 7 6.4 6 8 

Thickness 2 

Superficial inches in end section 5 5 2.9 2 1 6 

Twelve inches long 12 

Cubic inches in 12 inches long 6 6 3 5.0 5 9 2 

Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 

398103552 
132701184 

Total weight 1 7 2 5.1 1 5 3 9 2, ans. 

Thus making the weight of this casting 1726 pounds, 
nearly. 

We come now to the consideration of circular plates and 
circular solids; to ascertain the weight of which, the rule 
for finding the area of a circle is to be practically applied. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR PLATES AND CIR- 
CULAR SOLIDS, CAPACITY OF LADLES, ETC. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 for 
the superficial area, in square inches, and the product by 



106 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the thickness for the total cubic inches. This product 
multiplied by the weight of a cubic inch will give the 
weight in pounds avoirdupois. 

Example.— Find the weight of a circular plate, in cast 
iron, the diameter of which is 90 inches and thickness 24 
inches. 

OPERATION. 

Diameter 9 

90 

Square of diameter 8100 

Decimal multiplier for area 7 8 5 4 

3 2 400 
40 5 00 
6 4 800 

5 6 700 

Total area in square inches 6 3 6 1.7 4 

Total area in square inches 636 1. 7400 

Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 

381704400 
127234800 

Weight at 1 inch thick 1 6 5 4.0 5 2 4 

Thickness ._. 2J5 = 2| in. 

8270 2 62000 
33 08104800 
Total weight at 2£ in. thick.4 13 5. 131000 0, ans. 

Showing the weight to be a trifle over 4135 pounds. 

It will be noticed that instead of multiplying by the 
whole thickness, I first ascertain the weight at one inch 
thick. This, as before observed, serves as data by which to 
ascertain the weight at 90 inches diameter of solids at any 
depth whatever; thus: 

What is the weight of circular solid 90 inches diameter 
and 24 inches deep ? 



CASTINGS. 107 

OPERATION. 

Weight of plate 90 in. diameter, 1 in. thick, 

as found above 1 6 5 4.0 5 -f 

Depth in inches 2 4 

6 6 16 2 
3 3 8 10 

Weight in pounds 3 9 6 9 7.2 

Showing that a circular solid 90 inches diameter and 2. 
inches deep weighs a little over 3969? pounds. 

It will be seen how, by this rule, it becomes an easy 
matter to measure the capacity of any ladle when the 
diameter and depth are known. 

TO COMPUTE THE CAPACITY OF LADLES. 

Examples. — Required the capacity of a ladle, the diam- 
eter of inside of lining averaging 2 feet and depth 2 feet. 

OPERATION. 

Diameter inside lining, in inches 2 4 

24 

9 6 

48 

Square of diameter 5 76 

.7854 

2 304 
28 80 
4 6 08 
40 3 2 

Area in square inches 45 2 3 904 

Depth in inches 2 4 

18095616 
9 047808 

Total cubic in. of space 1 8 5 7.3 6 9 

Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 

6 5 1 44 2 140 

217147380 

Total capacity 2 8 2 2.9 1 5 9 4 0, ans. 



108 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Showing the total capacity of the ladle to be nearly 2823 
pounds. 

What was said with regard to the application of the 
rules relating to circumference and area for obtaining the 
weight of flat-bottomed tanks and pans will be here illus- 
trated. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF FLAT-BOTTOMED TANKS, PANS, 

ETC. 

Example. — What is the weight of a flat-bottomed pan, 
similar to Fig. 33, 86 inches diameter and 30 inches deep 
inside measurement, the bottom to be 2^ inches and the 
side 2 inches thick. 

We have already found the weight of the bottom, or 
plate 90 inches diameter, 2h inches thick to be 4135.1 -f 
pounds and the ring 86 inches inside diameter, 1 foot long 
was 1725.1 pounds. The latter multiplied by 2£, the in- 
side depth, gives 4312.75 pounds, which sum added to 
4135.1, the weight of the bottom, makes the total weight 
of such a pan 8448 pounds, nearly; thus: 

Weight of 1 foot on length of side..l 7 2 5.1 

2.5 = 30 in. or 2| ft. 



8 6 2 5 5 
34502 



Total weight of side or ring. 4 3 1 2.7 5 
Weight of bottom 4 1 3 5.1 

Total weight of pan 8 4 4 7.8 5, ans. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF A CIECULAE EING INCLUDED 
BETWEEN THE CIECUMFEEENCE OF TWO CONCENTKIC 
CIECLES, AB AND CD, FIG. 34. 

Rule. — Multiply the sum of the Uvo diameters by their 
difference and this product by .7854 for the area. Then 



CASTINGS. 109 

multiply the area by the thickness and again by the weight 
of a cuoic inch; the product will be the weight of the ring 
in pounds. 

Example. — Required the weight of a circular ring with 
outside diameter 72 inches and inside diameter 58 inches, 
and 2f inches thick. 

OPERATION. 

72 
58 



Sum of the two diameters 130 

Difference of the two diameters 14 



5 20 
130 



1820 
Decimal multiplier for area 7 8 5 4 



72 80 
9 100 
145 60 
12740 

Area in superficial square inches.. .142 9. 4280 
Thickness 2.7 5 = 2£ in. 



71471400 
100059960 
28588560 



3 9 3 0.9 2 7 
Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 



23585562 

78 6 1854 



Total weight 1 2 2.0 4 1 2, ans. 



110 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

"Which gives the total weight of the ring about 1022 
pounds. 

Note. — The rule for the above example may not be very 
clear to those unaccustomed to mathematical terms. For 
the benefit of such I would say that " the sum of the two 
diameters " means that the diameters 72 and 58 are to be 
added together. As seen, this gives a total of 130. 
" Their difference " means that the lesser, or 58, is to be 
substracted from 72, the greater, and the remainder or 
"difference," 14, used as a multiplier. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF KETTLES OR PANS WITH 
SPHERICAL OR ROUND BOTTOMS, ETC. 

In order to make this subject as plain as possible it will 
be necessary to explain how the area of a sphere is found. 

The surface of a sphere is equal to the convex surface of 
the circumscribing cylinder. This simply means that the 
surface of a sphere is equal to the outer surface of a 
cylinder whose diameter and height are both equal to the 
diameter of the sphere; hence the rule to find the surface 
of the sphere is, to mult i 'ply the circumference by the 
diameter. Consequently, when we would determine the 
weight of a pan that, like Fig. 35, is an exact half sphere, 
we have only to multiply the circumference at the mouth, 
AB, by the depth, at CD, which in this case is just one 
half the diameter. 

Rule. — To the inner diameter at AB add the thickness, 
then multiply by 3.1416 to obtain the circumference, and 
multiply this product by the height at BC, and again by 
the thickness for the total cubic inches, which, if multi- 
plied by the weight of a cubic inch, will give the weight in 
pounds. 

Example. — Eequired the weight of a spherical pan 
which is an exact half-sphere (like Fig. 35). The inside 
diameter at AB to be 72 inches and the thickness 2 
inches. 



CASTINGS. Ill 

OPERATION. 

Inside diameter 7 2 

Thickness added 2 

74 
Multiplier for circumference 3.1416 

444 

74 
296 

74 
222 

2 3 2.4 7 8 4 
Full depth at DO 3 8 

18598272 
6974352 

8 8 3 4.1 7 9 2 
Thickness 2 

Total cubic inches 1 7 6 6 8.3 5 8 4 

Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 

1060101504 
353367168 

Weight in pounds 4 5 9 3.7 7 3 1 8 4, ans. 

Jr nearly 4594 pounds. 

Any added depth to the body of such a pan would 
simply increase the multiplier for depth; for instance, if 
22 inches were added, as indicated by the broken lines at 
AB, the full depth would be then increased to 5 feet, and 
60 inches would be the multiplier, instead of 38, as in the 
example. 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF BALLS. 

Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236 and the 
product will be the solidity, or cubic indies contained in 



112 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the figure, which, if multiplied by the tueight of a cubic 
inch, will give the weight in pounds. 

The cube of 12 inches diameter would be 12 inches 
multiplied by 12 inches, the product of which is 144 square 
inches; these again multiplied by 12 inches produce 1728 
cubic inches, which is the number of cubic inches con- 
tained in a cubic foot. 

Note. — Fig. 36 will help to a full understanding of the 
cube. 

Example. — Required the weight of a cast-iron ball 12 
inches diameter. 

OPERATION. 

Ball's diameter 12 

12 

144 
12 

Cube of ball's diameter 1728 

Multiplier for solidity 5236 

10368 
5184 
3456 
8640 

Cubic inches in ball 9 4.7 8 8 

Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 

54286848 
180956 16 



Weight of a ball in cast iron 2 3 5.2 4 3 8 

So that the weight of a cast-iron ball 12 inches diameter is 
nearly 235£ lbs. 

Should a lead ball of the same diameter be required, 
find the weight of a cubic inch of lead in the table, and 
use that for a multiplier in the place of .26, as for cast 
iron ; as follows : 



CASTINGS. 113 

OPERATION. 

Cubic inches in ball 9 4.7 8 

Weight of a cubic inch, lead .4 1 

90478 
361912 

Weight in pounds, lead 3 7 0.9 5 9 8, an? 

Showing that a lead ball 12 inches diameter weighs 37 1 
pounds, nearly. 

The weight of cast-iron balls may be determined by 
multiplying the cube of the ball's diameter by .137, as 
follows: 

12 
12 

144 

12 

Cube 1728 

Multiplier, cast iron only 13 7 

12096 

5184 
1728 

Weight 2 3 6.7 3 6, an- 

Or very nearly as before. 

PERCENTAGE IN THE FOUNDRY. 

Without some knowledge of the rules of percentage it is 
hardly possible for any founder to mix cast iron with the 
view of obtaining a certain amount of any or all of the 
elements therein contained. 

Supposing we wish to ascertain how much silicon enters 
into any mixture, we must by chemical analysis find out 
just how much of that element is contained in each of the 



114 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

brands of iron that constitute the mixture, and according 
to the percentage found in the brands used so will the 
total percentage of silicon be. 

That this may be made as easy of accomplishment as 
possible, I have chosen for the purpose of illustration a few 
of the rules in percentage which bear directly upon this and 
kindred subjects. 

Let us suppose that in a charge of 6000 pounds we have 
four different kinds of iron, as follows : 

Sloss 3000, contains by chemical analysis 3.35$ silicon 

Scrap 2000, " " " 1.5 

Macungie. 750, " " " 1.82 

Crozier . . . 250, " " " 1.14 " 



Total, 6000 

Required the total percentage of silicon contained in 
the whole charge. 

I put it this way so that some of the questions may be 
used as examples, and serve the double purpose of ex- 
plaining the rules and solving the problem before us. 

Percentage is a method of computing by means of 
a fraction whose denominator is 100. 

The term per cent is an abbreviation of the Latin per 
centum, which signifies by the hundred. 

The rate per cent is the number of hundredths. Thus, 
8 per cent is eight hundredths, and may be expressed T $ v , 
or .08, or 8f 6 . 

Per cent is simply the proportion of a hundred, and is 
not any of the denominations of Federal money; 10 per 
cent is not 10 cents, nor 10 dollars, but ^ u a ; 10 per cent 
of $50 = $5; 10 per cent of 85 tons is Si tons. 

Case 1. — To find the percentage of any number or 
quantity, the rate per cent being given. 

Rule. — Multiply the given number by the rate per cent 
and divide by 100, viz., point off two decimals. 



CASTINGS. 115 

Examples. — (1) What is 8^ of 640 pounds ? 
Operation.— MO X 8 = 5120 -f- 100 = 51.20 lbs. Sf of 
640 = T jfo of 640 = VoV = 51.20, ans. 

(2) What is 50$ of 3.35 ? (3) What is 33^ of 1.5 ? 

3.3 5 1.5 

50 33£ 



10 0)16 7.5 0(1.6 7 5, ans. 5 

100 45 
45 



675 

6 00 10 0)5 0.0(.5. 
500 



750 
700 



500 
500 



(4) What is 12^ of 1.82 ? (5) What is 4^ of 1.14? 

1.8 2 1.14 

12i 4£ 



91 

2184 



10 0)2 2.7 5 0(.2 2 7 5,ans. 
200 



275 

200 



750 
700 

500 
500 





19 
456 


5, 




10 


0)4.7 5 0(.4 7 
400 


ans 




750 

700 






500 
500 





116 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Case 2. — To find what rate per cent one number is of 
another. 

Rule. — Annex two ciphers to the percentage, and divide 
by the number on which the percentage is reckoned. 

Example. — (6) What per cent of 40 tons is 8 tons ? 

800 + 40 = 20. 8 = -£o of 40 ; T \ of 100 = 20. 

(7) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 3000 lbs. ? (Sloss.) 
6 000)3 00.0 0(.5 0,ans. 
30000 




(8) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 2000 lbs. ? (Scrap.) 
6 00 0)2 «>0 0.0 (.3 3 £, ans. 
1 8 

20000 
18000 



2 00 
(9) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 750 lbs. ? (Macungie.) 
6 0)7 5 0.0 0(.l 2 f = 1 2 #, ans. 
6000 



15000 
12000 



3000 
(10) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 250 lbs. ? (Crozier.) 
6 0)2 5 0.0 0(.O 4 fans. 
24000 



1000 

Case 3. — To find a number when the value of a certain 
per cent is known. 

Rule. — Annex two ciphers to the percentage and divide 
by the rate per cent. 



CASTINGS. 117 

Example. — (11) 42 is 25 per cent of how many pounds 
of iron ? 

2 5)4 2 0(1 G 8 lbs., ans. Or, 4200-7-25 = 16 8, ans. 
25 



170 
150 



200 
200 

Case 4. — To find what number is a certain per cent 
more or less than a given number. 

Rule. — When the given number is more than required 
number, annex two ciphers to the given number and divide 
by 100, plus the rate per cent. 

"When the given number is less than the required num- 
ber, annex two ciphers to the given number and divide by 
100 less the rate per cent. 

(12) What amount of gold at a premium of 25 per cent 
can I buy for $720 in currency? 

100 + 25 = 12 5)7 2 0(5 7 6. Ans. $5 7 6. 
625 



950 

875 

750 
750 

(13) Purchased pig iron and sold it for $1680, thereby 
losing 20 per cent. What did the pig iron cost ? 

10 = 20 = 80)1 6 8 0(2 1 0. Ans. $2 1 0. 
160 

80 
80 



118 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

A careful examination of these rules and examples will 
show that by their aid we have solved the problem asked 
at the outset, for, as shown in Case 2, Examples 7, 8, 9, 
and 10, 50 per cent of the charge is sloss, 33 1 per cent 
scrap, 12\ per cent macungie, and 4£ per cent crozier. 

Now, sloss contains 3.35 per cent of silicon, and as we are 
using .50 per cent of this iron in the charge, we must know 
what that percentage amounts to. By referring to Case 1 
we find the rule for ascertaining this: 50 per cent of 3.35 
is seen to be 1.675$, as per Example 2, Case 1. 

Scrap contains 1.5 per cent silicon, 33£ per cent of which 
is .5 per cent, as per Example 3, Case 1. 

Macungie contains 1.82 per cent silicon, 124, per cent of 
which is .2275$, as per Example 4, Case 1. 

Crozier contains 1.14 per cent silicon, 4£ per cent of 
which is .0475$, as per Example 5, Case 1. 

These items collected in the form of a convenient table 
show that the whole mixture contains 2.45 per cent, or 
nearly 2£ per cent, of silicon, as follows: 

CHARGE OF 6000 POUNDS. 

Sloss 3000 = 50# of charge, contains 3.35jS of silicon, 50# of which is 1.6750 

Scrap 2000 = 3:^# " " 1.50;S " 33# " " .5 

Macungie... 750 = 12J# " " 1.8,'je " 13±# " " .2275 

Crozier 250= 4|g " " \.\A% " 4& " " .0475 

6000 1.00 Total silicon, 2.4500 

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF WEIGHTS, STRENGTH, 
MELTING - POINTS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC., OF 
METALS, INCLUDING THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS 
OF USEFUL MINERALS AND WOODS. 

A vast amount of useful information may be obtained 
from this table if it be properly understood. 

The first in the table contains a long list of metals, 
minerals, and woods which are in constant use, and as 
quite a large number of these are in great demand in the 



CASTINGS. 



119 



Substances. 


V 
O 

3 

3 
CO ^3 

o 5 
« o 


o 

fa 

o 
3 

3 

u . 

o 5 

OJL 1 — ' 

T B 


§1 

iO-H 

§2 

°o 

CM 

— S o 

£c/.E- 


9 CD 

3 3 

oo 

•— _ 

3 tuO 

-OJO 


* 
3 □ 
OO 

Mi 
c jS 5 

§f 




CO 

*M 
C CO 

1) 

3 be 

i.9 

c „ 

1.3 


c - 

•c p 

Iff- l » 

2^3 B-O 

J o-C 3 
■E - b Z 

4=1 

1,1" (-■'.£ 


Metals. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Deg. 


Lbs. 




.260 
.2(53 
.264 
.281 
.283 
096 
378 


440 
450 
455 
486 
490 
1210 
65 1 
540 
555 
455 
437 
440 

525 

535 
710 
712 
160 

480 
535 

132 
155 
105 

165 
120 
128 
96 
80 
62.5 

75 
60 
60 

55 
50 
50 
50 
40 
34 
40 
30 
.075.29 


37.5 

40.5' 
40.8 


3.12' 

3.33 
3.40 


"2.45 

2 61 

2 67 


'3,477 

3 981 
2.501 
2.587 
1,250 
2,550 

..420 
741 

1,897 


20,000 
25 000 






30,000 
60 (00 




Steel 


110.1 00 
20.000 




54.6 

47.5 

38" 
36 6 

43.6 


- 3.'8i 

"oids" 

3.63 


"2.99" 

2.40 

2.85 


40 000 




.317 
.321 
.263 
.248 
.263 

.282 


20 000 
00,000 
4.000 
2.500 
15,000 

28.000 

80,000 

1,8(0 

25,000 


Tin, block 

Zinc, rolled 

Brass popper 3 j YellQW 




.410 
.411 
.092 

.272 
.309 


59.3 


4.94 


3.48 


G17 
700 




b-HaZTi 10 } 

Bronze -J gjMf 1- ' 10 [ 

MINERALS. 








70,000 
36,000 

225 


42.5 


3.54 


2.78 






























1,000 
500 




























































Coke 












Woods. 












12,000 
23,000 














Box 




18,000 












1 1 ,500 


Oak. 




17,000 














16,000 














10,(00 


Birch 










15,000 












10,000 










8,000 












17,000 












62.5 



























120 



TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 





■sei^ 


■-ov 




OB 


., 


















be— x)M 






31 

5 J 







Substances. 


gsfs 

IB «J _e = 


Eo-ifl* 

50 "" - 1 




Streng 
Torsion, 
1. 


u 


a) 


> 

5 






— ._ x.n 







> g be 


1 03 



id 








QQ 




16? 'I 


'to v 

1/ = 




3) 




h 


L3 


H 


K 


n 


CO 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


L s. 


Lbs. 


Metals. 
















500 


100.000 


400 




15 


7.200 




6H0 
700 


1 .'0.000 
125.0(10 


5 K) 

700 


9 


25 

50 


7.2.17 




7.3H8 


Iron, wrought 


900 


50.000 


750 


10.1 


20.000 


7.788 


Steel 


1.500 


125.0(10 
35.000 


1.200 


16.6 


15.0U0 


7 833 




19.258 




500 










10.474 






100.000 
15.500 


350 

750 

60 


4.3 
1.4 


200 
40.31(1 
2.500 


8.788 




330 
50 


S SS0 




7.201 




30 




30 




500 


6 861 




200 


164.800 


200 






7.101 


HrHgarMfYdtow 








4.6 


4.000 


7.820 






165.000 
7.000 


1.000 
20 


1 


15.000 




Lead cast 


20 


11 352 




30 




30 






11 388 




2 560 


B— popper, 10 J 




135.000 


400 






7 680 








Bronze ^ , . , PP t er ' 10 {- 






500 


5 


8.000 


8 560 


" " c 1 Tin, 1 S 
Minerals. 


















2.500 








2 112 


Glass 








2.487 




25 
40 


10.000 
6.000 


980 
100 






2 654 








2 651 




1 020 














2 050 














1 536 














1 280 














1.000 


Woods. 
















160 

150 

130 
100 

i.-o 

120 


10.000 

10.000 
6.000 

10 000 
8 000 


150 
120 
125 
100 
140 
110 






1 . 200 








.060 


Box. . 






.960 


Ceilar 






.880 


Oak. . . 






.880 


Beech 






.800 




120 


8 oon 


180 






.800 


Birch 


130 
100 


5.000 
8.003 








.800 




65 






.640 








.554 


Walnut, black 


150 
120 


8.000 
6.000 


130 






.640 








480 














.001205 














1.000 

















CASTINGS. 121 

foundry, a knowledge of their several natures and qualities 
will always be serviceable. 

The second column gives the weight of a cubic inch 
of all the metals included in the list, and serves as a 
multiplier when the contents of a casting have been 
reduced to cubic inches: for instance, a plate 12 inches 
square, 1 inch thick, = 144 cubic inches; if the weight is 
required in cast iron, find cast iron in the first column, 
opposite to which the weight of a cubic inch is found to 
be .263; then 144 x .263 = 37.872, or over 37 \ pounds. 
If such a casting were required in lead, the weight of a 
cubic inch is stated .41; then 144 X 41 = 5904, or a little 
over 59 pounds. Aluminum being only .092 lb. per cubic 
inch, would show 144 X .092 = 13.248, or nearly 131- 
pound s. 

The third column shows the weight of a cubic foot in 
pounds, and may be made very serviceable at times. Sup- 
pose it were required to know the weight (in cast iron) of 
a piece 3 feet square and 4 feet high : then 3x3 = 9, 
and 9 X 4 = 36, the number of cubic feet contained. By 
the table a cubic foot of cast iron weighs 450 lbs. : then 
450 X 36 = 16200, or 200 lbs. over 8 tons. 

A cubic foot of dry sand (as shown) weighs 120 lbs., 
therefore the same bulk would only weigh 4320 lbs. : thus 
120 X 36 = 4320 lbs., or 320 lbs. over 2 tons. 

The fourth column gives the weight of a superficial square 
foot 1 inch thick; fifth, the weight of a bar one inch 
square and one foot long; and the sixth being the weight 
of a bar 1 inch diameter, 1 foot in length: all of which is 
very useful data to have at hand when wanted. 

MELTING-POINTS. 

This column gives the melting-points of the simple metals 
mentioned, but the melting-points of alloys are invariably 
below those of the simple metals composing them. For 



122 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

instance, 1 tin and 1 lead melts at 370°; 2 tin and 1 lead 
melts at 340°; 3 tin and 3 lead and 1 bismuth at 310°; 1 
tin, 1 lead, and 1 bismuth at 310°. A still lower melting- 
point is obtained when 5 zinc, 3 lead, 3 bismuth, and 3 
mercury is used, the latter alloy being said to melt at 
122°. 

TENSILE STRENGTH. 

The tensile strength of any material is 'the cohesive 
power, or resistance to separation, by which it resists an 
attempt to pull it apart in the direction of its fibres or 
particles. 

The table gives results of tests of the various substances 
under ordinary circumstances, but much higher rates have 
been obtained when special effort has been made with the 
view of ascertaining the very best results possible. As stated 
in the table, the weights given are the number of pounds 
required to pull a bar one inch square asunder, or its 
equivalent. Instead of weights being used for this pur- 
pose, however, testing-machines are constructed, which 
determine the strength of materials with strains of differ- 
ent kinds — tensile, transverse, torsional, crushing, etc. 

The bars made for this purpose are usually made to a 
uniform measure of one inch square of sectional area and 
one foot in length. To ascertain the tensile strength 
of this bar it is gripped tight at each end and the strain 
applied until it breaks or tears asunder; an index indi- 
cates the amount of strain existing at the moment of 
rupture. 

The ultimate extension of cast iron is about the 500th 
part of its length. 

TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. 

The breaking-weights given in this table represent the 
number of pounds weight required to break a bar one inch 



CASTINGS. 123 

square and one foot in length, the weight suspended on one 
end. This means that the weight or pressure is applied 
one foot distant from the point where the opposite end is 
held fast. 

The relative stiffness of materials to resist a transverse 
strain is as follows : 

Wrought iron. 1.3 Oak 095 Elm 073 

Cast iron 1. Ash 089 Beech 073 

White piue... .1 Yellow pine. .087 

The following table shows how great a diversity of 
strength may be given to the same sectional area of east 
iron by simply changing the form of the casting. It will 
be noticed that the lowest result is 565 and the highest 
2052 pounds. 

Note. — A careful study of this will yield good results. 



TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON BARS, REDUCED 
TO THE UNIFORM MEASURE OF ONE INCH SQUARE 
OF SECTIONAL AREA, AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH. 
FIXED AT ONE END, WEIGHT SUSPENDED FROM THE 
OTHER. 

Breaking- 
Form of Bar. weight in 

Pounds. 

Square (see Fig. 37) 873 

Square, diagonal vertical, Fig. 38 568 

Column, solid, Fig. 39 573 

Hollow column, greater diameter twice that of the lesser, 

Fig. 40 794 

Rectangular rim, 2 in. deep X i in. thick \ t 1456 

" 3 " XI " Fig. 41 ] 2392 

"4 " Xi " J ( 2652 

Equilateral triangle, an edge up, Fig. 42 560 

" " an edge down, Fig. 43. 958 

Beam 2 in. deep X 2 in. wide X .268 thick, Fig. 44 2068 

" Fig. 45 565 



124 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

CRUSHING STRENGTH. 

What is meant by crushing strength, is the power in- 
herent in the material to resist a compressive or pushing 
stress, which force would tend to shorten it. 

While the effect of tensile stress is always to produce 
rupture or separation of particles in the direction of the 
line of strain, that of crushing or compressive stress may 
be to cause the material to fly into fragments, to separate 
into two or more wedge-shaped pieces and fly apart, to 
bulge, buckle, or bend, or perhaps to flatten out and utterly 
resist rupture or separation of particles. 

TORSIONAL STRENGTH. 

Torsional strength means the ability of the material to 
resist a twisting or wrenching of its parts by the exertion 
of a lateral force tending to turn one end, or part of it, 
along a longitudinal axis, whilst the other is held fast or 
turned in an opposite direction. 

The figures given in the column under "torsion" rep- 
resent the relative stiffness of the several substances 
mentioned. 

Hollow cylinders or shafts have greater torsional 
strength than solid ones containing the same volume 
of material. 

Solid square shafts have about one-fifth less torsional 
strength than solid cylinders of equal area. 

The torsional strength of cast steel is about double that 
of cast iron. 

RESILIENCE OR TOUGHNESS. 

The term resilience is used to specify the amount of work 
done when the strain just reaches the corresponding elastic 
limit. The table shows the ultimate resilience of metals as 
tested in the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, 



CASTINGS. 125 

N. J., and gives at a glance the comparative ability of 
metals to resist forces such as bending, etc. 

The resilience of phosphor-bronze is far in excess of the 
ordinary bronze. 

SPECIFIC GBAVITY. 

Specific gravity of any body is the proportion which the 
weight of a certain bulk of that body bears to the same 
bulk of another body which is taken as standard. 

The standard for substances, solid and liquid, is distilled 
water at the temperature of 62° Fahr., a cubic foot of which 
weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois, or 62.5 pounds. 

The specific gravity of solid bodies is best measured by 
the hydrostatic balance, which gives the weight of a 
volume of water equal in bulk to the solid, by which it is 
only necessary to divide the weight of the solid in air to 
obtain the specific gravity. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces. If the same 
bulk of another substance, as for instance cast iron, is 
found to weigh 7.200 ounces, its proportional weight or 
specific gravity is 7.2. 

The weight of a cubic foot is obtained from the figures 
representing specific gravity or density by moving the 
decimal point three figures from the right, which gives the 
weight in ounces; and these again divided by 16 give the 
pounds avoirdupois in a cubic foot; thus 7200 ■— 16 = 450 
pounds. 

Gold is 19 and silver 10 times heavier than water, conse- 
quently the numbers 19.000 and 10.000 represent the spe- 
cific gravity of gold and silver. 

The heaviest known substance is iridium, used for the 
pointing of gold pens; its specific gravity is 23.000. Car- 
bonic-acid gas, or choke-damp, is 300 times lighter than 
water, common air 800, street gas about 2000, and pure 
hydrogen, the lightest of all substances, 12,000 times. 



126 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 

INCLUDING BLOCK AND PLATE METHODS OF MOULDING; 
GEAE-MOULDING BY MACHINERY, AND A DESCRIP- 
TION OF SOME MODERN MOULDING-MACHINES. 

The object of this article is to bring before the mind of 
the foundryman, in as brief a manner as possible, the pres- 
ent condition of the foundry with regard to the various 
appliances now in use for the production of castings. Im- 
perfect as it may be, it will, in some measure at least, give 
at a glance some idea of the evolution which has been grad- 
ually taking place around us in the past, and may serve 
to incite the minds of some to still further efforts in the 
direction of improved foundry appliances. 

The several moulding-machines, as we see them to-day, 
have not sprung into existence all at once. The process of 
their development has been a gradual one; and not until 
inventors were able to grasp some, if not all, of the chief 
requirements for producing a well-finished and trustworthy 
mould did any real success attend their efforts, even in the 
inferior class of work to which the limited capacity of their 
machines has hitherto confined them. 

Before entering upon the subject of moulding-machines 
proper, it will be of interest to take a retrospect of the 
foundry appliances generally, past and present; by which 
means we shall be better able to judge, not only just how 
much advancement we have made, but also to trace almost 
from their inception the growth of the present mechanical 
appliances for moulding. 

The difference between past methods in moulding as com- 
pared with the present i& almost as great as that of smelt- 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



127 



ing the ore, which latter can only be appreciably under- 
stood when we compare our methods at present with some 
of those still in use in semi-civilized countries. Fig. 46 
represents a blast-furnace of the Kols, a tribe of iron-smelt- 
ers of Lower Bengal and Orissa. The men are nomads, going 
from place to place as the abundance of ore and wood may 




Fig. 46. 

prompt them. The charcoal in the furnace being well 
ignited, ore is fed in alternately with charcoal, the fuel 
resting on the inclined tray so as to be readily raked in. As 
the metal sinks to the bottom, slag runs off at an aperture 
above the basin, which is occupied by a viscid mass of iron. 
The blowers are two boxes with skin covers, which are al- 
ternately depressed, by the feet and raised by the spring 
poles. Each skin cover has a hole in the middle, which is 
stopped by the heel as the weight of the person is thrown 
upon it, and is left open by the withdrawal of the foot as 
the cover is raised. Variously modified iu detail and in- 



128 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

creased in size, these simple furnaces are to be found in 
several parts of Europe at the present time. 

Compare the above with some of the remarkable systems 
of hot-blast smelting now in vogue, as described in late 
works on metallurgy, and the change seems truly startling; 
yet the principle is the same in both cases almost, the 
main difference being in the kind of blowing-engine used 
and the magnitude of the operations. 

CEANES. 

In nothing does the spirit of improvement manifest itself 
more than in the choice of cranes for foundry purposes: 
where once the slow and ponderous wood cranes stood, are 
now to be seen in some places elegant structures of steel 
or iron, whose every movement is controlled with a degree 
of accuracy unthought of by our predecessors, and com- 
paratively unknown to many around us at this time. With 
the advent of electricity as a motive power, backed by a 
growing desire on the part of founders to apply this won- 
drous force to existing structures (something very easy of 
accomplishment), our foundries are assuming a method 
which, to those accustomed only to the old regime, seems 
almost unreal. When large bodies are being lifted they 
seem to shoot upwards as if propelled by magic, and lighter 
ones, such as parts of moulds, etc., are closed together with 
a degree of precision unattainable by the clumsy structures 
which these more effective engines have displaced. No 
noise, no rushing through the shop for a spare crank to 
supply the place of the one just broken by as many hands 
as could crowd around it, no anxiety of foreman or men, 
all proceeding with a naturalness born only of perfection, 
and all this owing to the fact that it has just dawned upon 
the minds of founders that the foundry can be made more 
productive if sufficient attention is only given to its needs 
and requirements. 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 129 

The business of cranes has fortunately been taken out of 
the hands of the amateur crane-builders that infest almost 
every firm which boasts of owning a foundry, and this to 
such an extent as to effectually bar out every attempt on 
their part to ever again inflict one of their monstrosities on 
a patient and uncomplaining shopful of moulders. If it 
were only for the latter great benefit, we have reason to 
bless the day when the specialist in the manufacture of 
cranes was able to give us the perfection we have attempted 
to describe for less money than one of the old abortions 
would cost the unsuspecting victim of the once famous, 
but now almost defunct, 'handy man about shop.' 

It is a good sign to notice the almost universal adoption 
of these lately invented appliances for reaching every nook 
and corner of the foundry with some adequate means for 
lifting objects hitherto lifted by hand at great risk to all 
concerned. The pneumatic and steam hydraulic cranes, 
etc., suitable for such purposes are now to be obtained at a 
comparatively trifling cost. From the number of such ap- 
pliances now in use, there is every indication that the con- 
venience and general welfare of the employe is receiving 
attention to which he has been hitherto unaccustomed. 

Another labor-saving device for facilitating the rapid 
handling of large quantities of molten iron is becoming 
very popular in many of our large architectural, car, and 
stove shops, consisting of an overhead trolley system direct 
from the cupola to all parts of the shop, one man being 
able to pilot 1000 pounds of iron direct to the floor, and. 
serve each hand-ladle as fast as presented, the latter opera- 
tion being made very simple and clean by a hook on the 
band of the supply ladle, on which the moulder can rest his 
ladle whilst it is being filled, a suitable eye on the band of 
the hand ladle being provided for that purpose. 



130 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



TESTING-MACHINES. 

The rapidly increasing popularity of the testing-machine 
in the foundry is the sure indication of a desire on the part 
of founders for a more correct and satisfactory means of 
knowing just what iron they are using; the rule-of-thumb, 
as exemplified by the antiquated method of testing by 
fracture alone, is being fast relegated to the rear, its place 
being taken by the more positive means of the testing-ma- 
chine and crucible. 




Iratrican Machinist 



Fig. 47. 



The machine shown in Fig. 47 is designed for testing the 
tensile strength of metals; the rod A, to be tested, is made 
to one square inch of section, and is held between clamps 
attached, respectively, to levers B and G. The lever B is 
acted on by a worm-wheel C, and worm operated by a hand- 
wheel F, bringing the tensile strain upon the scale-beam 
levers G, H, and /; to the long arm of the latter weights D 
are applied until the bar A is ruptured, or the required 
testing strain is reached. E is a counterbalance weight for 
the levers G, H, I. 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



131 



How these machines are applied for obtaining a trans- 
verse test will be seen at once by consulting Fig. 48, which 
is self-explanatory. 




Fig. 48. 



TRACKS AND TRUCKS. 



Where the means for transmitting moulds, cores, cast- 
ings, and all other materials are lacking overhead, espe- 
cially in large foundries which have assumed their present 
magnitude, section after section, by the process of building 
' something temporarily' for the present, as their business 
increased from time to time, there is now a very good sub- 
stitute in a system of well-kept tracks with switches in 
every available direction. Specialists in this line now 
manufacture trucks that will turn in a 12-foot radius with 
ease, with loads of three tons or more, thus taking up little, 
if any, more room than would be required for turntables, 
the latter objectionable feature being by this means effectu- 
ally dispensed with. The transmission of cores from the 
oven to their respective places, sand from the bins outside, 



132 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

and molten iron from the cupola to every part of such a 
shop may with such an arrangement be accomplished with 
marvellous facility, and with an outlay for labor that is in- 
finitesimal compared with lugging everything by hand. 

Fig. 49 shows how admirably the track system is adapted 
to a number of shops collected together, as above described. 
As will be seen, connections for both supply and delivery 
are well provided for; the tracks were so arranged that a 
steam-crane lifted the iron from the cupolas onto the trucks 
with the least delay imaginable, and every part of these 
straggling places brought into intimate relation with the 
cupola by said means. 

CONVEYERS. 

May we not hope that before long the laborious and by 
no means desirable mode of wheeling in barrows all the 
material used by the sand and loam mixer, etc., will be 
supplanted by one or other of the much -to-be-ad mired sys- 
tems of conveying which are becoming so common almost 
everywhere, except in the foundry ? These means are pre- 
eminently adapted for foundry purposes, inasmuch as every- 
thing could then be hauled to its destination clear of the 
foundry floor altogether. Mines, mills, and quarries are 
duly supplied with fast or slow speed elevators and con- 
veyers with a perfect discharge; grain is handled in such a 
manner as to leave no trailings behind, and different grades 
handled by the same conveyer (something very suggestive 
of its adaptability to foundry use); clay at the brick-yards, 
coal at the wharves and elsewhere, tanneries, tile and stone 
yards, have these splendid appliances in full swing; but, as 
usual, the foundry is last in the raoe. 

ELEVATORS TO CUPOLA SCAFFOLD. 

Looking at the very excellent arrangements for elevating 
material to the charging platform at some of our foundries, 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



133 




134 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

one is forced to the conclusion that improvements began 
first at the outside, and only very slowly found their way 
into the foundry proper. However, it is a satisfaction to 
know that the interior has at last been reached, and every 
part is now receiving its due share of attention in all well- 
regulated shops. The advent of the ordinary elevator made 
it possible to banish forever that slavish and expensive 
mode of carrying by hand all the iron and fuel to the scaf- 
fold; but it is evident that very many cling tenaciously to 
these time-honored notions, otherwise we should see some 
scheme invented, even in the meanest places, by which 
material could be handled more sensibly as well as profit- 
ably. 

The common freight elevator may be very readily adapted 
to almost any foundry, and this contrivance owing to the 
lively competition of makers, can be furnished at a remark- 
ably low cost. The author has had an every-day experience 
of 75 tons of melted iron per day at a foundry where both 
iron and fuel, great as was the quantity, was lifted from the 
foundry floor to one end of the scaffold in iron cages hold- 
ing about five tons of iron, and deposited on a truck which, 
by means of a suitable track, was conveyed to each of the 
three cupolas in use, respectively. The crane used for this 
purpose was an ordinary jib with a reversing engine behind ; 
and whilst it may appear a somewhat rude method com- 
pared with the best practice of the day, it was very effec- 
tive. 

CUPOLA SCALES. 

It is a great saving of time, as well as an aid to correct- 
ness, to provide a scale with several beams and poises, so 
that a truck may be at once filled with the several quanti- 
ties of different irons which go to make up a charge. This 
allows the proportional quantities to be collected on the 
truck instead of obliging them to be carried separately to the 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



135 



cupola. The iron truck at Fig. 50 is shown on a section of 
railway upon the scale-platform; the beams are concealed, 
but are supposed to be provided with indicators, which pass 
through the top of the beam-box. There is no doubt that 
this method originated at the car-wheel foundries, where 
the cupola scaffold is in many instances connected with 
the yard direct by a line of railway on a constructed in- 
cline. It is even easier to adopt this scheme where the 




Fig. 50. 

truck can be run from the scale to the elevator platform 
on the level, and. not a few of our wide-awake firms have 
adopted the scheme. 



AND EIDDLES. 

The sand riddle shown at Fig. 51 is undoubtedly the re- 
sult of an evolutionary process easily traceable through all 
its several stages or periods: at first the tiresome and back- 
breaking standing with riddle in hand to receive shovelful 
after shovelful of sand from an associate, to be either freed 
from scraps or more effectually mixed and tempered; then 
the stick with a nail inserted at each end, one of which was 
to thrust into the floor to prevent slipping, the other to 



136 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



protrude through one of the meshes at the front of the 
riddle, thus relieving the operator of nearly one half the 
load as he jerked his riddle back and forth ; and again the 
mortar-mixer's screen brought into the foundry, — perhaps 
surreptitiously from some new building in course of erec- 
tion near by. 

Finally, the machine as intimated, which is supposed to 
give a combination of all the motions incident to ordinary 
riddling, saving at least half the labor, and the time also. 
Whilst this figure serves to show a very popular power 
riddle now in use at many foundries, it by no means covers 




Fig. 51. 



the field of invention for this end. A very good one by 
J. Evans & Co., Manchester, Eng.. hooks the tray into 
slings which depend from any convenient support above by 
means of straps bolted on the frame. The tray is formed 
of a piece of T 5 F " plate iron, bent round to form three sides 
of a rectangle, the fourth side being left open. A series of 
half-inch bars pass across the frame, the action of the up- 
permost bars being to assist in breaking up the large lumps 
of sand. The sieves, which are interchangeable, are laid 
over the lower bars. The oscillating motion is imparted to 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 137 

the frame from a belt-pulley, which drives a three-toothed 
cam pinion : these teeth thrusting alternately the pins 
in the slotted piece attached to the bar which actuates the 
frame, communicate a rapid jarring to - and - fro motion 
thereto. The fine sand falls through the sieve into a bin 
below, and the unbroken lumps pass on and fall out at the 
open end. 

A revolving screen, lately introduced in some of our 
leading shops, is no doubt the most effective machine yet 
seen for mixing heavy piles of sand, and promises to super- 
sede all other contrivances yet invented for that purpose. 

CLEANSING MILL. 

The simple tumbling-barrel was the first attempt made 
to supersede the old method of cleaning small castings with 
old Cles and pieces of sandstone or emery. How well some 
of us can remember the army of little boys and old men 
employed for this purpose at all such firms as manufac- 
tured large quantities of small work. This simple machine, 
like all others since introduced, cleans and polishes cast- 
ings by attrition, and consists of a cylindric or barrel- 
shaped vessel, composed of perforated slabs bolted to the 
two ends, having a side door for the introduction of the 
work, and mounted on an axis so as to be revolved by a 
wheel or pulley. Very many improved ones are now in 
use, but all aim at the one object of cleansing by the intro- 
duction, along with the castings, of slag or cinder, which, 
as it breaks up by constant abrasion with the castings, 
cleans the latter from all adhering sand, which escapes 
through the perforations, leaving the castings clean within 
the barrel. Some are now provided with an exhaust ap- 
paratus for conveying away the dust, — a very desirable 
acquisition, it must be said,— are friction-geared, and pro- 
vided with hand-wheels for stopping and starting. Others 



138 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



again are revolved on chilled truck-wheels, the heads hav- 
ing guides turned thereon for the purpose, thus doing away 
with axis on the head altogether. A great saving of time 
is effected when two barrels are employed, as in this case 
one may he kept running whilst the other is being loaded 
or unloaded. 



LOAM-MILL. 



Another of the evidences of a growth in the desire for 
best methods is the adoption of the mill for grinding loam, 




Fig. 52. 

where such a commodity is in constant demand. Old as 
this contrivance is, it is nevertheless a fact that in many 
foundries they are still pounding away on the chopping, 
bench, apparently ignorant of the existence of such a 
machine; others claim that hand-made loam is the best, 
but this cannot be any other than a wild statement, having 
no ground in fact. With such a mill as is shown at Fig. 
52, loam may be ground to any consistency desired, accord- 
ing to the amount of clay and manure and the nature of 
the sand used. 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



139 



The machines that are sometimes erected for this pur- 
pose are not suitable, being simply a copy of those used in 
cement and other factories ; one chief objection to most of 
them is the ou trigging required for carrying the gearing, 
which is usually on the top. The one shown at Fig. 52 is 
the best mill for the foundry, being provided with a chute 
through which the loam or clay-wash may escape when it 
has been sufficiently ground, and its usefulness may be 
still further enhanced by a system of hoppers overhead for 
the introduction of the sand, clay, etc. 



MOULDEES' CLAMPS. 

Even the ordinary light-work moulders' clamp receives 
some attention during this age of improvement : amongst 
many other excellent contrivances may be classed the ones 
seen at Figs. 53 and 54, the latter, although ingenious and 





Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



sure, might be objected to on account of the protruding 
handle, but its other acceptable features will, in many in- 
stances, compensate for that. The dilapidated condition 
of the top edges of wooden flasks, caused by that outlandish 
mode of pinching now so prevalent, as well as the many 



140 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

failures from jarring of iron copes whilst driving wedges, 
ought to impel every founder to invent something more 
elegant and satisfactory than are the crude devices invari- 
ably practised. In nothing does the spirit of improvement 
seem so backward as is the case in this particular, almost 
everywhere. 

GEARED LADLES. 

There is every evidence of shiftlessness and culpable 
neglect when, as is sometimes the case, we see a dozen men 
struggling to pour a casting from a six-ton ladle provided 
with no other means for such an operation than the old 
crutch-bars at each end. When Nasmyth, the great Eng- 
lish mechanic, added to the pivot of a crane ladle a tangent- 
screw and worm-wheel by which it might be gradually 
tilted by one man standing conveniently near by, he made 
every moulder in the universe his debtor; and no founder 
should hesitate, on the ground of expense or for any other 
reason, in providing such safe means as this valuable inven- 
tion secures. The difference between the two devices is a 
striking one, and compensates in a large measure for the 
very meagre conveniences supplied by our too-easy ances- 
tors. What the writer believes to be the chief characteris- 
tics of a good geared ladle will be found on page 79. 

HAY AND STRAW ROPES. 

We noticed how anxious were the founders of almost 
every country to possess one of the hay-twisters shown at 
Fig. 55, when they were first placed on the market; but 
this may not have been occasioned by a desire to be abreast 
of -the times so much as that their superiority over the old 
patriarchal ways, from a monetary point of view, was so 
manifest as to check all opposition to their general adop- 



FO UNDR 7 APPLIANCES. 



141 



tion wherever large quantities of hay or straw ropes were 
used. However, we are willing to class this with the other 
evidences of a general desire for a more practical and 
rational adoption of any mechanical contrivance which 
will not only save labor, but, also add dignity to a much- 
abnsed trade. 

As seen, this machine makes the hay or straw rope, and 




Fig. 55. 



winds it up into a coil for transportation. Rollers draw 
the hay from the trough, and the twisting is effected by a 
planetary action of the rollers longitudinally ; it is then 
coiled on the reel. 

Since the introduction of the above-described machine 
there have appeared others of more or less merit, but with 
many it remains a matter for conjecture whether there has 
been any substantial improvement made. 



142 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



GEAR-MOULDING BY MACHINERY. 

Owing to the various difficulties caused by irregular 
ramming, unequal expansion of patterns arising from the 
different degrees of dampness in the sand, as well as the 
lmost certain destruction of some parts of the mould dur- 
ing the withdrawal of the pattern, and which could at best 
be but approximately repaired, it is safe to say that very 
few gear-wheels of magnitude were ever made true before 
Jackson, of Manchester, England, invented his machine 
for forming part of the mould and spacing the teeth with 
mechanical accuracy in the sand, one tooth only being 
used for producing the whole number contained in the 
wheel, this one tooth being alternately raised and lowered 
by suitable machinery, which not only draws the pattern 
with absolute precision, but travels to the next tooth as 
precisely as could happen in the best gear-cutting machine. 

Everything points to the fact that the principle of Jack- 
son's machine was first suggested to him by the method of 
moulding gear-wheels which was then finding favor at most 
of the large millwright shops in his immediate neighbor- 
hood, and which will be found fully explained in " The Iron 
Founder," the scheme therein described for forming the 
cope and bottom bed, as well as the arms, being substan- 
tially the same as adopted by him; in fact, if the reader 
will carefully examine the whole subject he will see clearly 
that the wheel moulding machine is simply the application 
of a method for spacing the teeth, and insuring a better 
draw of the same. 

Since the introduction of the above machine many others 
have sprung into existence, notably the Scott, Bellington 
and Darbyshire, Whittaker's, Buckley and Taylor's, and 
Simpson's. With the exception of the latter, all these 
machines are actuated by change-wheels for effecting the 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 143 

regular movement of the same; but the Simpson machine 
is worked independent of such means, thus obviating any 
inaccuracy consequent on the wear and tear of the several 
wheels employed. The pitching of the teeth is somewhat 
after the manner of the division-plate and index-pin of a 
geometric lathe, and on these machines a sheet-iron drum 
is secured to the top of the central column of the machine, 
aud perforated with a series of circles of holes, giving a 
large range of numbers suitable for different numbers of 
teeth. A peg is made to fit into these holes, passing 
through a hole in the vertical arm attached to the horizon- 
tal arm which carries the tooth-block, and so locks the 
machine accurately during the ramming of each separate 
tooth. The horizontal or carrier arm slides vertically on 
the central pillar, and when adjusted for height is kept in 
position by means of a collar upon which it rests. A slot 
in the arm permits of a movement upon the horizontal 
slide operated radially by a screw and hand-wheel ; 
through this slide passes a screw and a guide-rod for im- 
parting a vertical movement to the tooth-block. The 
tooth-block is elevated by a hand-wheul and mitre-wheel ; 
provision is made by a hand-wheel and slot for setting the 
blocks of bevel-wheels at any required degree of angle. 

Fig. 56 is a rough sketch of a moulding-machine for 
wheels when the spacing is actuated by change-wheels. It 
is seen that a pattern is used corresponding to a small 
portion of the gear to be moulded ; this pattern includes 
two teeth and the interdental space, when spur-gears are 
to be moulded, and is attached to the lower end of the ver- 
tical guide-bar, which slides in ways formed at the end of 
a horizontal support, which has a radial position relatively 
to a central spindle or arbor. By this means the pattern 
is carried around, and, being made to descend upon the 
bed previously formed, gives, after ramming, the proper 
impression for that portion of the gear-wheel which corre- 



144 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



sponds to it. It is used to mould gears from nine inches up 
to six feet in diameter — either spur, bevel, mitre, mortise, 
or worm wheels, plain or shrouded; and it is also equally 




Fig. 56. 

applicable to moulding fly-wheels or pulleys, either plain or 
shrouded. 



OTHER LABOR-SAVING DEVICES— CASINGS. 

Casings in which to form the outer, and in some in- 
stances both outer and inner parts of crystallizing cones 
for chemical works, as well as sugar-pans and numbers of 
kettles, etc., were a natural outcome of the ever-increasing 
demand for such articles, and which could not have been 
met by the usual practice of moulding in bricks and loam. 
The same may be said with regard to the rapid growth of 
the pipe trade consequent on the general outcry for a pure 
and plentiful water-supply ; the creeping methods of 
moulding on the flat in green sand had to be abolished ulti- 
mately in favor of vertical moulding in iron casings, which 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 145 

latter suggested the application of said methods to hy- 
draulic rams, and all castings that could by this means be 
made without external ramming in the pits. Vide " The 
Iron Founder," page 186. 

PIT RAMMING. 

When the loam-moulder, in ramming up large bodies of 
sand in pits, sought out weights and big logs to occupy 
spaces of more than ordinary dimensions, thus reducing 
the time consumed in ramming as well as making a harder 
body for the mould to press against, he was sowing the seeds 
which ultimately blossomed into the well-kept curbs which 
could be fastened together at any convenient distance from 
the mould, making the containing of the latter independent 
of whatever space might be outside. The climax was 
reached when he confined all of his mould in suitably con- 
trived casings, in which the mould was prepared from the 
outset. 

WORM-PINIONS, ON END. 

We can well remember when it was first suggested to 
mould a worm-pinion by drawing it out of the sand endwise, 
and by that means obviate the unsightly joint. "Pooh! 
pooh!" exclaimed the conservative moulders around; but 
just as soon as a suitable pattern, with the necessary ap 
pendages for supporting and guiding the same, was fur- 
nished, the feat was accomplished without trouble, to the 
very evident dissatisfaction of the doubters. Now we have 
some pretty long pieces of conveyer-screw formed in the 
sand by first forming a plain cylindrical mould, and after- 
wards forming the thread by screwing a short section of 
pattern through the mould. 

SCREW-PROPELLERS. 

It is very evident that there has been a steady improve- 
ment in the ways of moulding screw-propellers from the 



146 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

first ; the writer remembers some very roundabout methods 
which at that time were considered perfection. Since then, 
however, large numbers of patents have been granted for 
improved methods of sweeping, flask-forming, and ram- 
ming, all evincing that there was a keen competitive spirit 
abroad. Following close on the heels of some late improve- 
ments by moulding in fixed flasks from one blade pattern 
only, comes still another patent for forming the blades 
separately by a sweep and an adjustable knife, which forms 
the blade independent of a pattern altogether. 

It is very encouraging to notice that most of these late 
inventions for propeller-making devices belong to practical 
moulders, some of whom are now working at the trade, 
clearly showing that we, as a class, are in the race for a 
legitimate share of the thinking. 

BLOCK AND PLATE MOULDING. 

A short review of the two methods — block and plate 
moulding — will serve to show that the spirit of invention 
was abroad in the foundries when some of the oldest of us 
were boys ; how much these early attempts have helped in 
bringing about the present elaborate systems will be appar- 
ent when a full knowledge of the modes then employed is 
obtained. Plaster-blocks were invented to make the 
moulding of thin delicate register work, as well as other 
long thin castings having more or less elegance of design, a 
more easy and safe operation, and consisted of taking 
plaster casts of each side of the pattern; then from both 
these impressions other plaster casts were taken in top and 
bottom match flasks, the latter then serving to ram thereon 
cope and nowel respectively, exclusive of the original pat- 
tern. Such moulds are in all cases an exact duplicate of 
the pattern, free from all the imperfections usually attend- 
ing the moulding of very light work by the common prac- 
tice. 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 147 

The necessity for producing small work of all descrip- 
tions at a more rapid rate, and with greater accuracy, sug- 
gested the principle of what is called plate-moulding, which 
consists of flasks well fitted, and with planed edges to 
receive a plate betwixt, upon either side of which are the 
respective halves of the several castings connected by the 
running gates. The pinning of these flasks is so arranged 
that the cope may be set down face up, upon which the 
plate is then pinned, to be followed by the nowel, which 
is at once rammed. After turning all three over, the gate- 
pin is set into a socket over the main runner, the cope 
rammed and separated, when, after a slight jarring, the 
plate is lifted off, exposing all the moulds with gates ready 
cut, leaving nothing to be done except to set in whatever 
cores are needed and close the mould. Should the cope 
side of the plate offer any difficulty in effecting a clean lift, 
the noAvels and copes can be rammed alternately; by this 
means the plate is lifted away from the mould in both cases, 
thus insuring a clean separation. The very excellent idea 
of fitting flasks interchangeably originated with these two 
methods. 

MOULDING-MACHINES. 

The stripping-plate, which constitutes one of the chief 
elements of the modern moulding-machine, is not by any 
means a new invention: some of the first were made over 
thirty years ago by a large manufacturer of cotton machin- 
ery in Oldham, England, for the production at a cheaper 
rate of pulleys, wheels, and other small work too numerous 
to mention. Compared with the elaborate systems of 
stool-plates, etc., on some of the present machines, these 
early efforts were no doubt somewhat rude ; still, it is evi- 
dent that the principles upon which the present methods 
are based are one and the same with the past— the patterns 
projected through the plate and were withdrawn under- 



148 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

neath by means of levers before the rammed flask was 
lifted off. Some were rolled over with the flask, and the 
pattern pulled through. 

The question is sometimes asked by parties opposed to 
machine-moulding, " Is the investment in machines and 
other appliances for a foundry justifiable?" And the 
reply readily comes that " you are justified in putting a 
plant into a foundry, and that every part of it should be 
as good as it can be made." They claim, and not without 
reason, that, with the exception of some minor devices, the 
foundry employs the old pod-auger methods; and, farther, 
that inasmuch as no man would hesitate to put new tools 
into his machine-shop that would save fifty per cent 
of what the labor costs, ought to hesitate when a similar 
inducement is offered in the foundiy. They furthermore 
assert that, owing to the superintendent being invariably a 
machinist and not a moulder, and while he is conscious that 
present methods are neither economical nor progressive — 
being unacquainted with the work— he defers to his foun- 
dry-man, who wants his foundry improved, but considers 
moulding an art and not a trade, for which machines can 
do the thinking. The latter assertion may be correct in 
some instances, but we know of places where the exact 
reverse is the case ; and even now there are many firms 
where machines are in active operation under the irn me- 
diate supervision of superintendents who are not moulders, 
and where the foreman moulder devotes his whole energy 
to make the machines a success, and this with astonishingly 
successful results. 

Another authority upon this subject says: " The all-ab- 
sorbing question, ' What is the economy in machine-mould- 
ing?' is very difficult to answer. The product of machines 
will vary in different foundries as much as the product of 
the moulder. What may be called a fair day's work is an 
unsettled question. A machine that will mould 175 flasks, 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 149 

16 X 16 X 10 inches deep, with ttvo men to operate it, in one 
foundry, would, under precisely the same conditions, mould 
250 in another. One manager ma} r surround his machine 
with conveniences for handling the work and thus increase 
his product, while another would compel his machine-men 
to work under disadvantages. The treasurer and practical 
shopman of a foundry were observing the operations of an 
automatic machine, with watch in hand. A complete half 
mould in 16-inch nowel, 5 inches deep, had just been made 
and turned on the floor for inspection in ten seconds after 
the sand was put into the flask, when the treasurer asked 
the question, ' How many moulds can be made in a day ?' 
Before any reply could be given the shopman said, ' That's 
not the question: the question is, How many moulds can 
we take care of ? ' A better answer could not have been 
given." 

The conditions are not at all favorable when all the sand 
is handled by shovels, and the moulds carried to and fro by 
hand. The authority above quoted, in speaking of this, 
says: "Two men on this machine make 200 moulds per 
day, and average during the working hours from twenty- 
seven to thirty-four moulds per hour. These men have 
made and carried away 158 nowels in one hour and thirty- 
five minutes, and have made 200 complete moulds ready for 
clamping in less than five hours. The flasks used in this case 
were 14 X 17 X 10 inches deep, and weighed 70 pounds; 
the sand in the flask when rammed weighed 156 pounds. 
"We must keep in mind that these two men must shovel 
into flasks over 31,000 pounds of sand and carry off the 
same amount in making 200 moulds; they must also handle 
twice 14,000 pounds of iron in flasks. 200 moulds under 
these conditions is too much for five hours' work, but this 
number is not too much for a day's work for two men. A 
greater product might be obtained from an additional 
man, or a conveyer for elevating sand to a hopper over the 



150 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

machine. A system of handling the moulds after they are 
made would also add to the machine's capacity." 

Mr. Harris Tabor, in a paper read before the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers at the San Francisco 
meeting, May, 1892, says: " Of all the mechanical arts, that 
of moulding has been the most difficult to .formulate and 
reduce to a system. Since the origin of metal-founding 
the moulder has been pleased to shroud his methods in 
certain mysteries which, to him at least, seem essential to 
perfect castings. There is much beyond the control of 
the moulder, in the art of metal-founding, which tends to 
make bad castings. His strongest influence upon the qual- 
ity of his work lies in the skill which cannot be verified by 
caliper, gauge, or rule. The moulder's art is in making the 
mould of its proper'density. Drawing a pattern from the 
sand after it has been rammed, and mending a broken 
mould, are mechanical operations easily taught: it is not so 
with ramming. If a touch of genius enters into the mould- 
ing it is shown in making the mould of such density that it 
will stand pouring without ' straining,' and be soft enough 
to prevent ' blowing ' and ' scabbing,' with a certainty that 
the sand will remain in place until the iron has solidified. 
This is the moulder's skill, which cannot be formulated 
and passed down to succeeding generations in books." It 
is very evident from the above that Mr. Tabor knew what 
difficulties he had to contend with when he undertook to 
make a moulding-machine that would automatically over- 
come them all. What course he pursued may be partially 
gathered from what he says in another part of the paper 
quoted: " In the spring of 1890, Mr. A. B. Moore, who was 
then a Stevens Institute senior, selected the rammer ma- 
chine as the subject of his thesis. We discussed the iack 
of data bearing upon the friction of sand, and decided 
jointly to make experiments. An ordinary platform-scale 
was used for weighing. A series of boxes 4x4 inches, 5x5 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



151 



inches, and 6x6 inches was decided on ; these boxes were 
supported by frames spanning the scale and resting on the 
ground, as seen at Fig. 5? ; each box was fitted with a loose 
bottom, which rested on the scale platform. The plunger 
used for ramming fitted its box loosely enough to avoid 
serious friction, and was connected to the weighted lever 
by a turned joint; the weight of the lever on the sand was 
found by weighing it in position. In all cases the scale 
was weighted to a pressure equal to 10 pounds per square 




Fig. 57. 

inch on the under face of the box. (This is about the 
density of the average mould surface.) We began with the 
4-inch square box as follows: 2£ inches of loose sand was 
put in and compressed to 1{} inches to give a density 
equal to 10 pounds on the under side, and it required a 
pressure of 12£ pounds on the top of the sand to produce 
this result. With 5 inches of loose sand, 17.} pounds press- 
ure was required on top to give 10 pounds below; an ad- 
dition of 2£ inches in the depth of sand brought the ram- 
ming pressure up to 34 pounds, and the last 2£ inches — 
making 10 inches — required a pressure of 42 pounds to 
give 10 pounds on the scales. With the G-inch box only 
111; pounds were needed to give 10 pounds below with 2£ 



152 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

inches of sand ; with 10 inches, 26 pounds raised the scale- 
beam, or 1G pounds less than was required under precisely 
the same conditions with the 4-inch box. The walls of 
the boxes were of undressed plank to represent the average 
condition of wooden flasks." 

THE TABOR MOULDING-MACHINE. 

With the rammer system of this machine greater pressure 
may be given over portions of the mould which would other- 



Fig. 58. 

wise be too soft. When flasks are of such a size that bars 
are necessary, the rammers are arranged to straddle them, 
thus doing away with all tendency of the bars to spring; 
this method also avoids the necessity of tucking under the 
bars. When the flat platen is used for ramming, sand may 
be scooped away from the highest portions of the pattern 
until the best results are obtained. With these automatic 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 153 

machines the rigid platen made of hard wood, is used 
for ramming, and cut boldly over the pattern; by this 
method it is claimed that no skill or judgment is necessary 
in putting sand into the flask, and the density of the mould 
over the iron may be made to suit any condition. The 
method of using flask-bars for ramming is to have them 
detached from the flask, and short enough to be forced 
down without coming in contact with its walls; the flask 
and sand-box are filled with sand, and the bars forced down 
by a flat platen; the bars are deeper where the greatest 



Fig. 59. 

ramming is required, and being made wedge-shaped, each 
bar spreads the sand until it meets the spreading influence 
of its neighbor. The heavy flasks are placed on trucks, 
which are topped with stripping-plates and contain mech- 
anism for drawing the patterns; the tracks are run under 
the machine for ramming, and withdrawn to take off the 
mould and replace the flask. For the lighter flasks which 
can be lifted by hand the machine shown at Figs. 58 and 
59 is made; the figure shows the floor broken to give view 
of the machine below the floor-line. The piston takes 
steam on the under side only, its weight being sufficient to 
return it promptly after the mould is rammed. To the 
piston-rod is attached the principal part of the mechanism, 



154 TUB IRON-FO UNDER STJl'PLEMENT. 

consisting of a table with lngs projecting upwards and 
supporting the pattern-frame upon which rest the patterns. 
The stripping-plate frame is directly over the pattern- 
frame and rests on it, to which the stripping-plate is at- 
tached, The stool-plate is suspended to the stripping- 
plate frame and moves with it; the side levers and tumbling- 
shaft are for tripping after the pattern is withdrawn. The 
pattern-frame has an annular passage, which connects with 
the cylinder and admits some steam to the pattern-plate at 
each movement, thus keeping the patterns in a dry condi- 
tion for smooth working. The stool-plate is really part of 
the stripping-plate frame placed below the pattern-frame, 
its object being to support stools, or internal parts of the 
stripping-plate used in holding up the green-sand cores, or 
heavy bodies of hanging sand while the pattern is being 
drawn: these stops can readily be changed to suit any 
pattern within the range of the machine. The ramming- 
head is carried by the wrought rods seen at either side of 
the machine. The steam-pipe enters the cylinder at the 
bottom, and from the throttle-valve to the cylinder serves 
also as an exhaust-pipe, the throttle-valve being a two-way 
cock by which steam is both admitted or exhausted from 
the cylinder. The half-flask is put on the stripping-plate, 
with the sand-box to hold the sand which is to be com- 
pressed, and both are filled with sand ; the ramming-head 
is then swung forward over the flask against the stops 
which define its position, and the throttle-valve opened. 
The upward motion of the piston and attached parts carries 
the flask and sand up to the ramming-head, where it is 
rammed instantly, and upon the lever being moved again 
steam is cut off, and at the same time exhausted, allowing 
the flask to descend ; the stops then engaging the free ends 
of side levers and arresting the downward motion of strip- 
ping-plate at a point about midway. The pattern continu- 
ing to descend is drawn from the mould, and when the 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



155 



piston has returned to its lowest position the sand is struck 
off the flask, which is then taken from the machine. As 
the man removes it he presses the tripping-treadle with 
his foot to release the stripping plate frame, which then 
falls to its proper position with respect to the pattern, and 
the machine is ready for another mould. Water or com- 
pressed air may be used instead of steam if it is desirable, 
though it is believed that steam is preferable in most cases, 
because it is usually easily obtained without the use of 
special auxiliary machinery of any kind. 

THE YIELDING-PLATEN MOULDING-MACHINE. 

The Atlas Engine Works, of Indianapolis, Ind., are the 
makers of the above-named machine, a perspective view of 
which is given at Fig. 60. The top of this machine is 




Fig. 60. 



provided with a rubber bag filled with water or compressed 
air, and the bottom or cylinder is caused to raise by the 
admission of compressed air, thus forcing the flask con- 
taining the sand against the rubber bag, which, they claim, 
presses the sand in a manner that cannot be effected by 
any other known method. The makers say that .amongst 
their several devices developed for yielding-platen mould- 



WQ THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

in g-rnach fries the flexible diaphragm backed by the fluid 
forms a wonderfully simple and effective machine. The 
platen yields according to the form of the pattern, thus 
producing uniform density of sand and perfect castings. 
The double rotary feature adds fully fifty per cent to the 
productive capacity of their original single machine. Pro- 
vision is made for reasonable variance in depth of the cope 
and drag without adjustment of the machine. Both drag 
and cope patterns are on the machine at the same time. 
They are made alternately, and the moulds finished, cov- 
ered, and clamped on the floor, ready for pouring, without 
increasing the labor force more than one man over that 
employed on the single machine. The machine is turned 
on its centre with little effort, and, in spite of its rapid 
work, is not wearing on the operatives. There is nothing 
to get out of order, nothing to break by strain. Wooden 
patterns can be used and drawn by hand, though drawing 
iron patterns through stripping-plates is recommended. 
The writer has stood and watched these machines in oper- 
ation, and can bear testimony to the regularity as well as 
efficacy of their movements, which is in every respect equal 
to what is claimed for them, quality as well as quantity 
being alike phenomenal. 

TEETOR MOULDING-MACHINE. 

This machine provides means for holding the flask 
securely, and turning it over; also for jarring the pattern, 
and holding the same perfectly level, to allow a clean sep- 
aration of the mould therefrom. As will be seen at Figs. 
61 and 62, the journals of the revolving moulding table 
are mounted on the top of the main standards. Amongst 
other things claimed for this machine are the following. 
That nearly all patterns may be operated successfully with- 
out stripping-plate; undercut patterns, or such as have 
curved, tapering projections, are operated, automatically, 



FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 



157 



by a method of suspending such oblique parts to the main 
pattern by means of a slotted link, which accommodates 
itself to the requisite position for a clean draw. Flasks 
may be given such form as will suit the form of the pat- 




Fig. 61. 

tern, in which case the general form of the intervening 
pattern-plate can be suited to the form of the pattern; or 
two machines may be employed, with separate match-plates 
for cope and drag. 

A jarring mechanism is also providsf., being mounted on 
extreme end of axle, on outside of the hand-wheel seen, and 
consists of a wheel provided with a handle and having 
pivoted on its rim a double-acting anchor-shaped cam, 



158 



THE IKONFOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



adapted to beat sharply against the axle of the moulding- 
table, by being revolved rapidly, and engaging with a mul- 
tiple cam ring fixed on main hand-wheel. This jarring does 
not shake the pattern in the mould, but gives it a general 
tremor sufficient to loosen it from the sand. Within the 




Fig. 62. 



revolving moulding-table are secured four adjustable 
clamps, adapted to hold the pattern-plate in any position 
of elevation desired, to suit the comparative depth of cope 
and drag. The revolving moulding-table is also provided 
with a double set of double-acting adjustable and inde- 
pendent excentric bales, adapted to bind and hold the 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 159 

flask aud bottom board, while being turned over in revolv- 
ing the moulding-table. 

The patentee of the above machine suggests a method 
of mounting pattern match-plates without any measuring, 
as follows: Take one half of pattern, and drill holes at 
exact right angles with the joining surface set on the other 
half; bind well together, and drill through the other half, 
taking care that the hole is in exact line all through; after 
which secure all the half patterns intended for the pattern- 
plate in their respective positions thereon, and drill all 
holes through the same. The two halves of pattern can 
then be secured on each side of the intervening plate by 
close-fitting pins. 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC., 

FOR LIFTING AND HANDLING ALL CLASSES OF WORK 
IN THE FOUNDRY. 

It is a well-established fact that the foundry is, ordi- 
narily, run on makeshift princ^les throughout, but espe- 
cially so with regard to the manner of handling material, 
whether it be the moulds or the finished castings. 

If this bad feature worked advantageously either in pro- 
ducing more or better work, or both, there might be a 
modicum of excuse for pursuing such a course; but it does 
not. On the contrary, we find that in almost every in- 
stance more time is needed to accomplish the work, which 
when done is very evidently far behind in quality. 

Then there is the increased danger consequent on the 
using of tools which are so badly adapted for the work in 
hand, which always engenders fear on the part of the 



160 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

workman, thus in a measure disqualifying him for the work 
he has undertaken to perform. 

But the anomaly which stands out most prominently is 
that it invariably takes a longer time and costs more to 
establish these makeshift methods than would be the case 
if safe and correct devices were prepared. 

If the above be true, and 'true' it is, there must assur- 
edly be something wrong somewhere. Sound judgment, 
backed by a good practical knowledge of all the require- 
ments, should always suggest safe and reliable methods, 
even if they are more expensive at first cost. In my ex- 
perience I have seldom met with opposition, from employ- 
ers, to the best methods being adopted when the case has 
been properly put. 

We are reluctantly forced to confess that most if not all 
of the makeshift systems in vogue arise from the fact that 
the man in charge is not equal to the occasion; he does the 
best he can, no doubt, but that is not good enough. 

The subjects chosen for illustration in this article offer 
a wide field for thought and practice; and whilst it may be 
a settled fact that similar equipments for every foundry 
are not possible, owing to the different needs to suit spe- 
cial cases, yet it is safe to say that, in a general way, lift- 
ing-tackle, with some few modifications, is much the same 
everywhere. 

It is not, as a rule, necessary to have a multiplicity cf 
chains for handling the work in any foundry, and this may 
be proved very easily by a little observation. However 
plentiful the tackle may be, there is sure to be a favorite 
set or sets of chains, hooks, etc., and these are in constant 
demand, while the rest are usually neglected and left to 
rust away in some unused corner of the shop. This should 
at once suggest the propriety of limiting the supply to an 
adequate number of just such chains, etc., as are best 
adapted for general purposes. 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 161 

Still, a too strict adherence to the system of making 
everything subservient to one principle of handling is to be 
deprecated, for the simple reason that it will be found very 
desirable in special cases to make radical changes in order 
to obtain the maximum in both quantity and quality of 
work to be done. Experience proves that any departure 
from fixed methods, which will jDerhaps lessen first cost as 
well as facilitate production other ways, is to be com- 
mended, even if the tackle made for such special purposes 
be not required when the job is through. 

The substitution of hinges for the recognized methods 
of separating sometimes works wonders, and not only saves 
lifting-tackle and time, but enable some of our small found- 
ers to accomplish work which without their aid would have 
been far beyond their capacity. 

The same may be said in regard to other methods, such 
as lifting by the use of chains and resting copes on horses 
provided with bearings for the swivels to turn in. This 
method can with profit be changed in some shops by 
using the beam and slings, which latter-mentioned device 
is eminently adapted for a wide range of work when prop- 
erly managed. 

Fig. G3 will serve to show several methods of handling 
loam work, round or rectangular, by the use of a four- 
armed beam or cross, on which, to favor illustration, arc 
represented three different modes of carrying the moulds. 

The cross seen at A is supposed to be made of cast-iron, 
and is provided with a steel centre eye, which works loose 
in the cross. The cross is strengthened laterally by a 
flange extending from the centre to the limit of the notches 
for holding the slings, beam hooks, or chains which are set 
therein. 

The plain wrought-iron slings marked B, C, B, and E 
are useful for all ordinary lifting when the mould is sus- 
pended direct from the cross, as shown. They are also ex- 



162 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

cellent adjuncts to the cross for binding purposes, because 
there is no particular harm done by leaving them rammed 
in the curbs, or pit, until the mould is cast. The plan of 
leaving chains, or any other tackle required for general 
use, in the pit is a reprehensible one, and should be avoided 
as much as possible. 




It will be seen that by using the cross these plain slings 
are equally applicable to square and round moulds when the 
lifting lugs are cast at the middle of the square plate, as 
seen at F, G, H, and I. 

By substituting chain-slings like the one shown at / and 
J, an ordinary beam, similar to the one shown at Fig. 64, 
may be used, and square or round moulds lifted with equal 
facility, the centre lugs F, G, H, and / being used for the 
round moulds, and those at K, L, M, and N provided for the 
square ones; the flexibility of the chain-sling allows of its 
being passed around the mould to the lifting lug with ease. 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 163 

When the method of single beam and chain slings is 
adopted, it is advisable to make all lugs on the plates after 
the manner shown at Fig. 65, and the sling end of the 
chain should be fashioned to fit the same easy; by this 
means the grip is always solid, no matter what angle the 
chain may take when the mould is lifted. 

In order to make such chains serve for both long and 
short moulds, beam-hooks like the one shown at 0, Fig. 63, 
can be forged, into which hooks or slings can be linked to 
bring the sling chain up to the desired length. 

One other method remains to be spoken of in this con- 
nection, which goes to prove what has been previously 




Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. 

stated in regard to adopting for every job the same mode 
of handling. At PP is shown the method of lifting loam 
moulds with the can-hooks exclusively, made with chain 
or long links, as shown. 

To make the can-hook principle as safe as possible, strict 
attention must be paid to the form of the lugs provided 
for lifting by. Figs. 66 and 67 will explain more readily 
than could be done in words how this may be accomplished. 
At Fig. 66 it will be seen that the lug is made at an angle 
ou the side next the hook; this allows the hook to take a 
firm grip well up to the root, where it is the strongest; and 
Fig. 67 shows a stop cast on each lug to prevent any possi- 
bility of the hook slipping off. 

It will be quickly perceived that, in order to allow of 



164 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



these hooks being used for the purpose above mentioned, 
all plates and rings must be made square, no matter what 
the form of the mould may be. 

When it is intended that flasks shall be lifted on the 
same principle, all upper flanges must be formed after the 
manner shown at Fig. 66, or else provision can be made for 




Fig. C9 



Fig. 71. 



Fig. 72. 



ring-bolts at such places as will best serve the purpose, 
and used as shown at Fig. 68. 

One of the most useful styles of chains which can be pro- 
vided for the foundry is the buckle chain, shown at Fig. 69. 
This may be made of any degree of strength, and consist 
of as many legs as occasion requires. It is safe to say that 
any foundry lacking such appliances as these will profit 
considerably by providing themselves with at least two 
pairs, light and heavy, of just such chains as are shown at 
Fig. 69. How much time they will save compared with 
using a plain chain, when a nice adjustment is needed, is 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 165 

well known to all who have had any experience in their 
use, and therefore requires no mention here. 

Three and four legged chains, shown at Figs. 70 and 71, 
are a great convenience for special occasions, and their 
usefulness is materially augmented by having them made 
with a turnbuckle like those at Fig. 69. The contemptible 
practice of thrusting nails between the links for the pur- 
pose of adjustment is entirely obviated when these more 
sensible means are employed. 

The beam, previously spoken of in reference to its use 
for loam work, and seen at Fig. 64, can be made to answer 
very many useful ends, chief of which is the reversing of 
copes by the aid of slings. The form of sling shown at 
Fig. 72 is perhaps as useful as an}^, its main feature beiug 
that the. lower circle at A is forged to fit the groove of the 
swivel, the upper circle being necessarily large enough to 
slip over the guard of the same. 

Another use for the beam is explained at Fig. 64, which 
figure serves to introduce the turnbuckle A in another 
phase of its usefulness. This entire rig will be seen to 
consist of hooks, two of which, B and C, take the first 
hold, any inequality of weight being regulated by the 
notches in the beam, while the buckle A admits of almost 
instant adjustment at that point, making it a very easy 
matter to lift all irregularly formed moulds with the great- 
est nicety. 

This class of beam may easily be made of wrought iron, 
and because such beams are lighter and safer than cast iron 
ones, the propriety of making them of the former material 
will be apparent. The hole under the beam at D is a no- 
ticeable feature, and will be appreciated when any supple- 
mentary hitching must be done. 

It will be well to observe here that the hook shown at 
0, Fig. 63, is really a part of this rig, and is very properly 



166 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



called a beam hook, because ordinarily these hooks would 
be set in the notches, and hooks B and C slung thereon. 

The variety of uses to which the turnbuckle A can be 
put will be apparent to many who are now making shift to 
get along by methods which are simply ridiculous, by com- 
parison, on account of their inadaptation to the work for 
which they have been planned, and that have cost perhaps 
more than tools adequate to the work to be done would have 
cost. 

A good sling-chain may in many instances be made to 
do duty for the beam and slings by the use of a stout oak 
timber, as seen at A, Fig. 73, the timber to be strengthened 
at the ends by an iron shoe which allows of link-pins being 
driven in, as seen at B and C. This combination will 
recommend itself as a time-saver in scores of cases where 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



Fig. 75. 



the object to be reversed is not too heavy to make such 
a means impracticable. 

Fig. 74 is a change-hook, and, as its name implies, is used 
where material must be passed from one crane to the other 
without resting the load ; its use is so common as to make 
any description here superfluous. It would be well to ob- 
serve, however, that inasmuch as men must necessarily be 
very near during /'he process of changing, the greatest care 
should be taken in selecting Jhe stock for, as ivell as the 
forging of, this hook. 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 167 

Sometimes the eyes A and B are close-welded to the body 
of the hook with the view of augmenting the strength, but 
it is much handier for use when they are left open, as 
shown; therefore, to combine utility with strength, let 
them be made more massive. 

Fig. 75 serves to illustrate how all common long chains 
should be made for the foundry. What is meant by common 
chains are all such as are composed of two strands of chain 
attached to a ring or link with hooks on the opposite ends; 
in other words, like the one shown at Fig. 69, minus the 
turn buckles. 

In all these there should be large links inserted at 




Fig. 76. 




Fig. 77. 




intervals, into which the hook could be inserted, as seen at 
A, Fig. 75. This increases the usefulness of the chain to a 
remarkable extent, as will be at once seen if the least 
thought is given to the subject. 

It would be well at this juncture to call the attention of 
all concerned to a practice which I am sorry to say pre- 
vails in many of the foundries, of making the shop chains 
out of the old crane chains. Now such practice is, to say 
the least, a very bad one; and there need be no wonder 
why at such places they should have so many broken 
chains, with an occasional broken leg or back to save the 
thing from becoming monotonous. 

When a chain is considered to be unfit for the crane it 
may be reasonably supposed that its usefulness is ended, 
and it should be at once consigned to the scrap-pile. 

When a lift is to be taken on a very loug box, with two 
pairs of ordinary chains somewhat short for the purpose, it 



168 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



is common to see one pair set to lift each end of the box: 
this naturally spreads the rings in the hook after the man- 
ner shown at Fig. 76, and brings the strain front and back 
of the hook; the effect not infrequently of this mode is to 
rend the hook asunder. This may be obviated in most 
cases by altering the position of the chains, so that each 
pair will lift one side: by so doing the spread takes place 
in the ring, as seen at Fig. 77, and the hook is called upon 
to bear the whole weight direct without suffering any 
undue strain. 

But should it be absolutely necessary to take a lift which 
would in any way endanger the safety of the hook, let a 





Fig. 79. 



Fig. 80. 



Fig. 81. 



screw clamp be made like the one shown at Fig. 78, and 
applied as seen at A, Fig. 76. This will give stability to 
the hook, and allow of such lifts being taken with compara- 
tive safety. 

Ropu tackle is not as common in the foundries now as it 
used to be : this is not owing to any particular fault of 
such tackle, but because of the difficulty in procuring it in 
good shape. It is not every man who knows how to 'splice ' 
a rope, make an 'eye,' or take a ' blackwall hitch'; so, be- 
cause it is easier to order a chain with a measurable degree 
of certainty as to its fitness than it is to procure the rope 
equivalent of the same, the former has become the rule 
nowadays. 



CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 169 

Still, this in no sense robs the rope of its merits : they are 
always useful adjuncts to foundry practice when it is prac- 
ticable to obtain them. The single-spliced sling shown at 
Fig. 7 ( J can be made to serve many useful purposes, such as 
drawing patterns, lifting cores, wood flasks, or anything 
which requires an uneven hitch to be made rapidly. Fig. 
80 shows how readily it can be hitched fast to a ring and 
used for numberless purposes, either end up; and Fig. 81 




Fig. 82. 



Fig. 83. Fig. 84. 



Fig. 85. 



Fig. 86. 



shows how a pair of light can-hooks might be improvised 
at short notice. 

Fig. 82 illustrates the kind of eye to be used when rings, 
hooks, or slings are to be secured thereon for the purpose 
of carrying heavy loads. Figs. 83 and 84 represent how to 
temporarily join two slings or two eyes. Fig. 85 will serve 
to show how handily two or more single slings can be made 
useful in ways too numerous to mention, and Fig. 8G is a 
common hitch amongst riggers, its one excellent feature 
being that it can be made and unmade almost instantly. 



170 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING 
CASTINGS. 



There is no other department of the moulder's trade in 
which, anomalous as it may appear, the average mechanic 
shows so much density as in the subject of pouring or fill- 
ing the moulds with molten iron. This seems a startling 
announcement to make, in view of the great importance 
given to this subject by all who are intelligently conver- 
sant with the art of moulding; but the fact remains never- 
theless, and can be proved every day by careful observation 
in our foundries. 

What can be more ridiculous than to see the greatest 
care exercised in the construction of a mould, every precau- 
tion being used that not a particle of dirt remain, even in 
its remotest parts; and yet, strange to say, this same care- 
ful (?) moulder, after all the solicitude he has unmistakably 
manifested to make a clean mould, will spoil the catting, by 
leaving .ill consideration of runners until the last moment, 
when he seizes a rude piece of curved tin, and at once pro- 
ceeds to give an exhibition of carving sand, utterly oblivi- 
ous of the fact that he may make or mar the whole job at 
this particular time, and heedless of the warnings of such 
of his fellow-workmen as may have already discovered that 
dirty runners make dirty castings, no matter how clean 
the mould may be. 

In order to emphasize the above, I would here say that 
where the object aimed for is to produce clean castings, all 
such contemptible subterfuges as gate-cutters, improvised 
out of tin, copper, or sheet brass, should be at once and for- 
ever abolished; as well might we expect molten iron to run 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 171 

uphill voluntarily, as imagine that clean iron can be de- 
livered to the mould through gates which have been dug 
into a wet joint without regard to either cleanliness or 
proportion. 

Whatever care is needed to secure a clean casting should 
be extended to the gates also. When the mould is made, 
every precaution is taken to insure a surface on which the 
metal can rest undisturbed; if the same precautions were 
taken for the runners and gates also, we should find a dif- 
ference immediately. 

All leaders and gates should, where practicable, be formed 
by patterns having the smoothest face possible; and wher- 
ever it is possible to reach them, their surfaces should re- 
ceive the same careful attention as the mould. 

The indiscriminate gouging out of so-called 'spray 
gates' is the cause of most of the anxiety experienced in 
architectural foundries from crouked castings and other- 
wise, and where a similar practice is tolerated amongst gen- 
eral jobbing work, clean castings are simply an impossibil- 
ity. In the former instance gates are cut at haphazard, 
regardless of proportion, and with such manifest ignorance 
of the requirements that the casting is lost, either from 
lack of volume in the runner, or the opposite extreme is 
obtained from gates of such magnitude as will draw the 
casting out of shape, or, as very often happens, break it 
altogether; in the latter case clean work is made utterly 
impossible, on account of the large proportion of dirt which 
forms in these rude and uncouth expedients. 

To correctly locate and determine the best methods of 
running is, to my mind, one of the chief elements in the 
art of moulding. If proper attention was given to this im- 
portant subject it would develop a line of thought and 
action to which most moulders have hitherto been strangers. 
Too frequently the exigencies surrounding a job make it 
almost impossible to adopt methods which would give per- 



172 THE IRONFO UNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

feet results, and I am free to confess that cost sometimes 
interferes with the adoption of means which are absolute 
and certain ; still, that need not deter us from ascertaining, 
if possible, what are the right principles which, if faithfully 
observed, will assure success in this very important par- 
ticular. 

Honor demands that full discussion be given this sub- 
ject; a mere generalizing fails to exhibit its numerous dif- 
ficulties: and no one will deny that at this day serious 
defects in castings (carefully concealed) might be averted if 
more conscientiousness were displayed on the part of both 
employers and their aids. How many castings enter into 
the construction of buildings, and form parts of the very 
elaborate and ingenious mechanical contrivances in con- 
stant course of erection, which would never have had a 
place there if those in authority had been cognizant of the 
many flaws existing internally, most of which might have 
been avoided if correct methods of pouring had been fol- 
lowed ! 

Castings having external blemishes may be dealt with 
according to the judgment or conscience of the firm which 
make them; but internal blemishes, caused by inordinate 
quantities of dirt lodged in critical parts (a result in most 
instances of faulty pouring); gas-holes, equally danger- 
ous, which a judicious arrangement of gates might have 
prevented,- these, coupled with the countless errors arising 
from imperfect feeding to parts having dissimilar magni- 
tude?, ought, I think, to suggest the propriety of giving 
this subject a place second to none in foundry economics. 

Plainly stated, the science of filling moulds with molten 
iron consists of three grand principles, viz.: first, that 
the mould must he filled evenly, with molten iron of equal 
tem feral are throughout; second, that such iron be dis- 
tributed by means which shall cause the least amount of 
frit Hon on tic surface of the mould ; and, third, that the 



POURING, FIOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 173 

molten iron be freed from all its impurities before it enters 
the mould. 

How this may be accomplished will, no doubt, be a mat- 
ter too tedious for some to examine into, but there are 
others who may be willing to study the subject earnestly; 
to such the following will be of interest. 

In order to a clear understanding of all the points con- 
nected with the very important matter under considera- 
tion, it will be necessary to take it in detail, beginning 
with 'open-sand' and common covered work, — which 
means all such castings as do not require finishing, only 
of such a nature as can be accomplished with the paint- 
brush, — extending the inquiry until we have covered the 
whole ground, including such castings as must of necessity 
be free from spot or blemish. 

Castings in 'open sand' (meaning all such as are cast 
without covering) are not nearly as numerous as they for- 
merly were, and this not because of any particular fault 
inherent to the system, but rather that there are so few 
men who are competent to make this class of work success- 
fully. Consequently, jobs are often covered, at an aug- 
mented cost, which might have been saved to the founder 
or his customer had the needed help for the production of 
such work been on hand. It is no exaggeration to say 
that the chief trouble with open-sand work is the pouring; 
when this is thoroughly understood, all other things being 
equal, very good work may be produced by these means. 

I have seen excellent furnace-fronts, weighing-machine 
tables, large flooring-plates, etc., cast in open sand ; and it 
comes very forcibly to my mind when on one occasion I 
cast the rim of a heavy fly-wheel with wrought-iron arms 
very successfully in the same way. As previously stated, 
the pouring is the trouble in a majority of cases. 

Supposing a plate be required 7 feet by 7 feet, or 7 feet 
diameter and f inch thick: the usual practice is to cut 



174 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



guides at intervals round the edge correct to depth. Some 
one or more is set to watch these guides and check the 
further flow of metal when the supposed height is reached; 
but a very limited knowledge of such things is sufficient to 
convince us that this kind of practice is very unsure, for 
usually on these occasions more than one ladle would be 
used for pouring with, and the feeling of uncertainty which 
exists prevents unity of action; consequently the plate is 




Fig. 87. 

invariably imperfect, if not bad altogether, being either too 
thick or too thin, or perhaps thick and thin in parts. 

To obviate all this uncertainty, and consequent loss and 
di.-grace, let a good mould be prepared, having the edges 
made up very much in excess of the thickness required, 
after which proceed to construct a runner at one corner, 
convenient for quick handling of the ladle, as shown at 
Fig. 87. The runner shown is for the square plate, and is 
set to run along one of its sides. Spare no pains in form- 
ing it after the manner shown ; have width sufficient to 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 175 

permit a stream 2 feet wide, with a gradual curving sur- 
face from the back downwards. As the iron rushes over 
the edge it is apt to carry it away if made up with green 
sand; to prevent this casualty, make the edge at this spot 
with a dry-sand core, as seen at A. 

For all plates answering to the dimensions given, one 
ladle will be sufficient for pouring with (hot fluid iron be- 
ing, of course, indispensable), in which the exact quantity 
of iron, neither more nor less, must be tapped. It will now 
be seen why the sides are to be made up high. Having 
the correct amount of iron in the ladle, it only remains to 




Fig. 88. 

pour it briskly down the incline of the runner, when the 
stream will strike the opposite corner with a force suffi- 
cient to drive it at right angles to the next corner, and so 
on; being urged by the constant supply behind, it whirls 
uninterruptedly around the periphery, and finally settles 
itself evenly all over, and all this without the least anxiety 
on the part of the operator, whose only business it is to 
empty the. contents of the ladle into the mould with the 
greatest possible dispatch, and leave it to settle of its own 
accord. 

Figs. 88 and 89 are plan and elevation of the same runne 



L76 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



when applied to a round plate. The core for protecting 
the edge is seen at A, Fig. 89. It will be observed that this 
runner is set tangential to the circle, the idea being to 
strike the edge, which must be made up high, as seen at 
B. This causes a rapid rotation of the molten mass, which 
ultimately settles or rests at an even surface all over, all 
anxiety as to correct thickness being removed, as before, 
by having the exact quantity of iron in the ladle. 



V>;'» .'.I//". •. 






American Machinist 



Fig. 89. 

When it is desired to make a casting in open sand, the 
lower side of which offers some difficulty on account of ribs, 
hubs, lugs, or brackets which must be cast thereon, ad- 
vantage may be taken of the method of running shown at 
Fig. 90. It will at once be seen that by placing one or 
more of these runners at such parts as will provide for a 
steady flow of iron into the mould the greatest nicety may 
be obtained, as any degree of pressure can be had by simply 
increasing or diminishing the height of the runner basin 
BB. These runners can be made very readily in dry sand, 
as shown at A, 

The almost universal condemnation of open-sand work 
arises from the fact that moulders are cognizant of their 
shortcomings in this particular, and endeavor to hide behind 
a general depreciation of possibilities; but it is, nevertheless, 
certain that, if the system is worked ior all it is worth, very 



POURING, FLOWINQ-OFF, AND FEEDING. 177 

much of our work might be simplified, with a consequent 
reduction in cost of manufacture. 

We will now pass to a consideration of some of the evils 




Fig. 90. 

connected with the pouring of thin covered plates. Figs. 
91, 92, 93, and 94 are intended to show the faults arising 
from the almost criminally bad methods usually resorted 
to for running flat work, whether for rough castings or for 
such as require planing. 

I have purposely placed the runners in Fig. 91 in about 
the same slipshod manner that ordinarily prevails at every 
foundry where special prominence is not given to the sub- 
ject of running; runners A, B, C, and D are sprays of the 
common type, and, as seen, are placed without any pre- 
tension to system or method. A careful analysis of this 
figure will help to solve some of the problems which are 
constantly puzzling the anxious moulder: observe that 



178 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



runner A is set on the right-hand corner, with the end 
spray marked 1 connecting with the casting at the end, 
whilst all the others are removed towards the centre in 
varying distances. The shade-lines issuing from each gate ; 
and spreading out in opposite directions, serve to show u& 
the direction of the various streams as they enter the mould, 
whilst the difference in depth of shude s caused by the inter- 




Fig. 91. 

section of the lines, represents the commingling of the 
streams at the point of juncture. 

A little reflection will serve to show that, because sprays 
2 and 3 are so far removed from each other, the spaces E, 
F, G, etc., are left to be filled after the molten iron 
has spent its heat and lost most of the force with which it 
first entered the mould, and the same may be said of all 
other parts of the plate where the shade-lines do not reach, 
even the spaces between the sprays showing at times con- 
clusive evidence of the lack of pressure and heat. 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 179 

To expect that a casting poured in direct violation of 
all the laws which govern in this case should be straight, 
is simply preposterous; they never are, and yet some 
persist in their ignorant course, and wonder why they 
should always have so much trouble with their plates. 

Is it not plain that long before the corner served by 
gates A and B (with a good supply of hot iron from the 
commencement of pouring) could be set, the corners E 
and H (hardly filled with dull iron at the last) would have 




Fig. 92. 

become cold by comparison, and shrinkage begun?' In 
addition to which there are the accompanying 'cold shuts' 
incident to such practice, which of themselves are suffi- 
cient to cause crooked work, as a few vibrations are all that 
is necessary to cause an open fracture sometimes, thus 
proving that ' cold shut ' practically means fracture pure 
and simple, and should always be considered such. 

At Fig. 92 is shown a plate one half the width of Fig. 91, 
with the sprays cut closer and more equally along the 
entire length, excepting at A; this being purposely left 



180 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



out to show how important it is that gates should be cut 
as seen at B. 

As indicated by the shade-lines, heat and force are about 
expended at CC, leaving the furthermost side to be filled 
with iron at a much lower temperature than where the 
gates are, thus producing unequal rates of cooling, with the 
consequent drawing out of shape. As will be noticed, the 
spaces between the sprays exist in this case as in the other; 
and one only needs to make very careful inspection of plates 
cast this way to detect in some instances very serious 




Fig. 93. 



flaws, which can be overcome only by a continuous gate 
extending the full length of the leader. 

The first of the three conditions stated at the outset is 
violated in both the above instances, because, as shown, 
these methods fail to " fill the mould with iron of equal 
temperature throughout," We will now consider just how 
near it is practicable to do so in this instance. Fig. 93 
shows the same casting with 16 runners equally divided 
over the upper surface, and Fig. 94 is a plan view of the 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 181 

cope and runner box, when it is intended to ponr such a 
casting with one ladle; a very practicable method, and one 
which I have successfully adopted on all occasions when it 
has been desired to prodiice a straight casting which had to 
be planed on both sides. 

By making the basin capacious, and forming the leaders 
as seen, such a runner can be filled almost instantly, with- 
out danger of carrying any of the dirt down into the 
mould. 

If Fig. 93 be carefully examined, it will be seen that, in- 



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Fig. 94. 



stead of straggling streams issuing from the gates, as at 
Figs. 91 and 92, we have a constant supply of molten iron, 
of 'equal temperature,' spreading itself over the whole 
surface, and thus, as near as practicable, meeting the de- 
mands of the first proposition. 

When necessity compels an uneven distribution of the 
chief runners, auxiliary ones may be placed in just such 
places as are likely to need them, as shown at /, Fig. 91. 

Fig. 90 shows a method of pouring by introducing the 
iron into the mould in an upward direction, and is prefer- 
able in all cases when it is desired to keep the bottom of 



182 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

green-sand moulds intact, there being less friction on the 
parts than is caused by the other modes of running. 

The style of basin is common; yet, common as it is, there 
are very few moulders who have spent sufficient thought 
upon its making to enable them to produce one correctly. 
In the first place, the box itself should be of iron (not wood ; 
this is both dangerous and costly), with a bottom ex- 
tending some distance from the front, as seen at C; this 
allows for the box to overhang a cope without the necessity 
of banking behind. In addition to having the basin a little 
deeper at the drop, so that trie stream from the ladle may 
fall iuto iron and not on the sand, it is well to leave ample 
space in the leader and around the down-runner, as a too 
limited area at these parts causes a slackness at the mouth, 
and the runner "draws air* all through the cast, simply 
because the supply is not equal to the demand. 

The figure also serves for showing how to make a flow- 
off gate when it is desired to run off at as low a point as 
possible. The flow-off gate is formed at D and covered by 
core E, which extends beyond the edge of the flask; the 
gate is fully formed after the cope has been closed as 
shown. 

Figs. 95 and 96 illustrate modes of running which may be 
practised advantageously on all castings with deep sides 
when it is desired to accomplish good work of this class in 
green sand. It is well known that when all the iron for a 
heavy piece is poured through one runner direct into the 
mould, there is always indubitable evidence of the extreme 
test which the runner end is called upon to endure: all 
such parts as are farthest from the runner retaining in 
some measure their original form, whilst those parts near- 
est are only made passable by subsequent cleaning and 
chipping. 

To secure an equal distribution of the iron, and thus in 
some measure avoid the evil spoken of, let runners similar 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 183 

to those shown at Figs. 95 and 96 be made. Leader A, Fig. 
95, is intended to be formed by a pattern set in position, 
and horn gates B leading therefrom to the mould C. The 
main runner, shown by broken lines at D, can be set at 
any part of the leader which may be the most convenient. 
One essential feature in this system, when the cleanest 



UZ 



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7 I IV;. 





work is desired, is to have the leader extend past the end 
gate, as seen at E, Fig. 95 : this allows of the first rush of 
iron, with its accompanying dirt, finding a lodgment there, 
the casting being, of course, benefited just that much. 

The mode of preparation for this green-sand runner is 
clearly indicated by the figure, and Fig. 96 shows how to 
make a runner equal in efficiency when it is not desired 



184 



THE IRON-FOUNDER 8LPPLEMENT. 



to adopt such elaborate means. Cores A are made in sec- 
tions and set end to end on a prepared bed, and cores B, 
with holes for down-runners, are set thereon, thus forming 
a complete runner, which only requires ordinary care to 
make it a success every time. 

Fig. 97 shows an approved style of draw-runner which 
has undoubted advantages over the common straight ones, 
indicated by broken lines at AB. It will be seen that, in 
using a runner which connects with the mould at right 
angles, there is always more or less danger from drawing 



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Fig. 97. 

air, if any temporary stoppage should occur in the pouring 
prior to the mould being filled above A. By the method 
illustrated the first portion of iron fills the runner as high 
as B, thus precluding all possibility of danger from that 
source. Much of the danger from scabbing may be averted 
by placing dry-sand cores where the iron rushes past, as 
seen at C 

Sometimes it is found convenient to run a deep-sided 
mould directly opposite to one of its sides, in which case, 
owing to the great commotion caused by the rebound, it is 
advisable to protect the surface in the immediate neighbor- 
hood of the gates by having dry-sand cores, as shown at 
Fig. 98. 



POURING, FL0W1NG-0FF, AND FEEDING. 18a 



The subject of runners would be far from complete were 
the very useful ones shown at Fig. 99 to be omitted. These 
are of universal application amongst a miscellaneous class 
of jobbing work, and where the mould is not too deep may 
be relied on for producing clean work, because, being thin, 
they allow of the basin being filled before time is given for 
any dirt to pass downwards into the mould. They are 
best when made about 3^" x §", with a very slight taper, 
and much trouble in steadying may be saved by having 





Fig oo 

them spiked as shown at Fig. 99a, A and B being simply 
common nails driven in a short distance, and the remaining 
part filed to a point. 

The arrangement of drop-runners does not seem to 
receive that amount of patronage which I think it should 
do. When the bottom of the mould can be made to bear 
the dropping test, it must be plain to any one that this 
mode has merits which none of the rest possess, inasmuch 
as the distance from the basin to the mould is reduced to 



186 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



a minimum, and consequently there is less area over which 
the metal must pass (and gather dirt) before it enters the 
mould. 

The crank shown at Fig. 100 is a good illustration of how 
particularly handy and effective this mode of running is: 
the basin AA is made large, and extends beyond the 
runners; this, as previously noticed, permits the iron to be 
poured with force sufficient to carry everything before it 
over and beyond the drop-gates; the increasing volume of 
iron serves to keep the dirt floating on the surface, whilst 
the mould is being fed with clean iron which drops into 
the molten mass below in the easiect and cleanest manner 




Fig. 101. 

possible. No other mode of running can compare with 
this whenever it is practicable to adopt it; and when green- 
sand moulds make it impracticable, why not make the 
mould in dry sand, and thus secure all the advantages of 
this very excellent system ? 

Steam-cylinders cast horizontally have always been a 
drug in the market on account of the clanger of losing the 
piece from dirt which inevitably collects under the body 
core; and rather than go to the expense of boring out extra 
stock, purposely allowed for the dii-t to collect in, firms are 
to-day making large numbers of small cylinders in dry 
sand, in order that they may be readily cast in a vertical 
position. 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 187 

One way of overcoming this difficulty is shown at Fig. 
101. Let a main runner A connect with a circular runner 
B, prepared in the core, and extending round the same as 
far as C; from this circular runner a gate must be formed (in 
the core also) connecting with the casting after the manner 
shown at D; also prepare a receiver or bottom head, so to 
speak, as shown at E, in both elevations. The first rush 
of iron down B will tend to carry the dirt past the gate D 
and round the core towards C, where, if the pressure is 
kept constant, it will be held; the mould (being inclined 
about 6 in. in 3 feet) will give an impetus that will carry the 
first iron with force down to the receiver E, where what- 
ever dirt may have washed downwards will be firmly im- 
prisoned. 

Fig. 102 illustrates a system of dams set before the 
castings when it is desired to produce clean work from 
a spray. When best results are looked for, all such gates 
should be connected with tbe patterns on a matchboard, 
so as to insure a good hard surface for the molten iron 
to pass over. Gates cut with tools are, as before stated, 
untrustworthy on account of the soft, broken surface yield- 
ing to the extreme heat to which they are subjected, and 
thus forming slag that invariably finds its way into the 
casting. 

The form of the leader in this instance is a noteworthy 
feature: the iron entering at A travels rapidly along the 
smooth, round surface of the leader, passing the gates, and 
out at C, carrying a large proportion of the dirt along with 
it; whatever portion remains is held on the upper surface 
of the leader whilst the casting is being fed from the bot- 
tom. The dams D, as seen, are formed with cores, and 
make "assurance doubly sure" by checking any inflow of 
dirt, should the pouring from any cause be lacking in 
force. 

There is no other casting that has helped the science of 



188 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



running as much as the governor-ball. During the early 
part of my apprenticeship this job was held back for some 
particular man, who alone could be trusted with such an 
important job; and not unfrequently have I known the 
best men to fail time after time to produce a casting that 
was clean all over when turned. 



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i .j ^^; \ ^ Mil -fi- M; \ .i 




American Machinist 



Fig. 102. 



The manner of running a ball which must be turned 
bright is shown at Fig. 103, where it is seen that the metal 
passes down A into the ball at B; the direction given the 
metal by this form of ingate causes the metal to revolve 
rapidly in the mould, and this causes the lighter substances 
which gather on the surface to collect towards the centre, 
as indicated by the arroAvs in the plan, to be ultimately 
ejected at the riser C. 

The principle involved to keep the ball clean must natu- 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 189 



rally suggest the propriety of filling other moulds from such 
a ball whilst the dirt is beiug held a prisoner in the middle 
of the swiftly rotating mass; and just how this may be 
accomplished is shown at Fig. 104, where a number of cast- 
ings, directly connected with a central ball, may be fed 
with comparatively pure iron, with no possibility of dirt 











Fig. 103. 

other than may be gathered within their own limits. Un- 
less in large castings, there need be no riser on the ball 
when it is used for running purposes. 

Fig. 105 shows how the principle may be made general, 
and used for almost any class of work. 

Fig. 105 illustrates two methods of running pipes or col- 



190 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



umns at the flanges, the gates AA being intended when it 
is desired to run down through the cope, and the one at B 
to be used when it is thought that the former plan would 
be too hard on the mould at that point. 

The regulation method of running square columns is 




American JhmhinUt 



Fig. 104. 




Fig. 105. 

shown at Fig. 107. All such columns will run from one 
end, under ordinary head pressure, 17 feet at one inch thick 
if the iron is in good condition; beyond this it is unwise to 
go, especially if the column should be less tban one inch. 
I speak now of how far metal will reach in such work; but 
as the method of running long columns all from one end 
conflicts with the first principle of filling moulds with iron 
of equal temperature, it is very evident that all long cast- 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 



191 



ings should be filled from both ends. The wisdom of the 
above always strikes us the more forcibly when we see any 
violation of these principles result in a cracked casting. 




Fig. 106. 

Keep all risers away from brackets, for should there be 
but a very slight commotion in the mould the bracket is 
sure to suffer if the disturbance finds a vent at that point. 

When the flask will admit of running round columns at 



K 




Fig. 107. 

the end, it is by all means the best plan to adopt; and the 
best kind of runner for this purpose is shown at Fig. 108, 
where main runners AA are seen to connect with a circular 
runner B cut round the bearing, and entering the casting 



192 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



at one or more gates ample to run the column safely. 
Round columns will run 18 feet £ inch thick from one 
end, providing all other things are favorable; but the re- 
marks on square columns apply with equal force to round 
ones, and risks should not be taken. 

Sometimes it is found advisable to change the location 
of the runner; if this must be done, choose some flange or 
collar into which the gates can be directed, either on the 
side, as seen at C, or dropped down as at D. 




A marican ■ Siachi ni*t 



Fiq. 108. 



Fig. 108 shows how to run a large wheel through the hub 
core. The centre dry-sand core, with a hole large enough 
to fill the mould at a proper rate, rests on another dry-sand 
core in which the requisite gates have been prepared. To 
save making the bottom core, holes for gates may be made 
at A, indicated by broken lines; but this plan is somewhat 
risky if the noses against which the iron beats are not made 
in dry sand, as seen at B. 

It is plain that a wheel filled after this manner is prefer- 
able to any other, as it makes what is otherwise a critical 
job a very safe one, and insures a good casting every time, 
at least so far as the running is concerned. 

Fig. 110 is a plan and elevation of a spiral drum, or at 
least as much of it as will serve the purpose of showing how 
to arrange for a system of bottom gates, when such gates 
must be made in the pii around a brick mould. Where the 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 193 




Fig. 109. 




Fig. 110. 



194 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



pits are damp, it is absolutely necessary to have the gates 
protected from the moisture. 

The method shown needs no explanation other than can 
be discovered by a careful examination of the figure. A A 
are the gates prepared in the mould, against which are set 
cores BB, these again being surmounted by other cores, as 
seen, until the top is reached. If the mould is unusually 
long, and there is danger of the metal becoming too slug- 




Fig, in. 



gish to fill the upper parts of the mould correctly, then 
apply the gates on the top, after the manner as fully ex- 
plained in " The Iron Founder," page 163. 

The utility of feeding castings is questioned by some; 
but a little reflection will, I am sure, lead all who deny its 
efficacy to see the erroneousness of their conclusions. 

The ball shown at Fig. Ill is supposed to be 12 inches in 
diameter, and suppose that such a ball was cast (without 
riser) with hot iron, and left to cool in the same position 
it was cast : it is certain that the upper surface would have 



POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 195 

fallen in, in proportion to the amount of shrinkage which 
would have taken place before the crust was firm enough 
to sustain itself; the amount of shrinkage would of course 
be according to the nature of the iron it was cast with. 
Now if this ball when cold was split in two it would be 
found that the upper hemisphere would show a sponginess 
similar to that seen in the sectional illustration at Fig. 112. 
The figure quoted is a good illustration of the point under 
consideration, being a sectional representation of a piece of 




v_y 




Fig. 112. 



Fig. 113. 



roll cast from inferior iron ; the internal shrinkage, unsup- 
ported by any system of feeding, causing the sponginess at 
the heart and very evident fracture at the neck. 

Mortars, such as shown at Fig. 113, were formerly cast 
solid, with a shrink head from A up. The head was after- 
wards turned off, and the casting bored out to the broken 
lines. And yet with the head cast on, as shown, it was 
never deemed advisable to risk a cast without keeping the 
heart free from scum, so that a constant supply of hot iron 
could be introduced to fill up the space which gradually 
forms as the shrinkage takes place. 

Now in the ball shown at Fig. Ill we endeavor to reach 
the heart of the casting through the riser A, which is made 



196 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



no larger than will just serve the purpose of feeding the 
ball. (In the former instance no riser was supposed to be 
on.) If the mould now under consideration was left to take 
its own course after being cast, the natural feeding would 
occur as long as the iron in the neck of the riser remained 
fluid ; but, as shown by the shaded lines, by the time the 
neck was solid there would still remain a considerable area 
of iron in a molten condition, and it is at this juncture 
that the rod B gets in its fine work by simply keeping open 
a communication between the upper and lower bodies by a 
constant supply of hot iron from the cupola. This is not, 
as some seem to think, a sort of pumping or forcing of the 




Fig. 114. 



iron below; the motion of the rod exercises no influence 
whatever, only to preserve a free channel through which 
the hot iron can pass into the shrinking mass below. 

Excellent results may be obtained by pressure-feeding 
sometimes, as illustrated at Fig. 114, which figure is intended 
to show how to feed the solid rim of a gear-blank by 
'freezing' the runner A immediately the mould is full, and 
afterwards pouring hot iron alternately down risers B and 
C, so regulating the operation that the body of metal below 



POURING, FLO WING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 197 

at D may be kept in motion as long as it remains in a fluid 
state. 

The possibilities of making such a casting solid by this 
method of feeding are considerably enhanced by the aug- 
mented head pressure, which in this instance is 1 foot 6 
inches more than would be the case ordinarily. Still it 
must be evident even to the least observant that this method 
has its limits of usefulness clearly defined, and can only 
be resorted to when the riser and casting are of equal 
magnitudes, or nearly so. 

When this is the case the process of solidifying proceeds 
equally and uninterruptedly from the outside, at both riser 
and casting, the shrinkage of the contracting mass being 
made good at every step by the constant and increasing 
pressure of liquid iron, which is being forced through from 
above; but it must be observed that certainty of results 
can only be reckoned on when this entire operation is con- 
tinued until the point of congelation is reached. 

As proof of the above, let a riser of the same dimensions 
be applied to a body of larger area, and no matter how hot 
the supply or how high the pressure, the riser will have 
congealed long before the heart of the casting, as is clearly 
demonstrated at Fig. Ill, making it absolutely imperative 
that the feeding-rod be used, as heretofore explained, or 
that pressure and area of riser be increased commensurate 
with the increased magnitude of the casting. 



198 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 

HOW TO USE AND HOW TO AVOID USING THEM. 

As long as moulds are made with cores forming a part of 
their general make-up, we must accept studs and ehajjlets 
as a necessary evil. Fully recognizing the fact that they 
have ' come to stay/ we must endeavor to use them with 
such discrimination as will give us the maximum of good 
and the minimum of evil attendant upon their use. 

True, their use may he entirely discarded in many jobs, 
if it be thought desirable to incur the expense of furnish- 
ing suitable means for securing the work without them; 
and it is always in order that a good moulder, if permitted, 
will make such disposition of the details connected with his 
job as shall in some instances result in accomplishing his 
work independent of chaplets altogether. To wilfully 
eschew such practice, when practicable, is a superbness of 
ignorance simply astounding; nevertheless, such is truly 
the case, and the fact is to be deplored. 

How many jobs, at very little outlay for cost, might be 
made after the manner shown at Fig. 115, where it is seen 
that the core, formed upon a true barrel A, is made to rest 
accurately, in finished bearings, at each end of an extension 
or outboard B, which forms in this case part of the flask, 
but may if necessary be a separate device to be firmly 
bolted to any flask, when occasion demands such practice! 
The manner of holding the core is shown at C, C, being 
simply caps which grip the barrel only, and are bolted, as 
seen. When such a mould must be cast on end, additional 
security will be given by providing a collar or pin, to pre- 
vent any possibility of the barrel sliding in either direction. 

" Oh, well," says some one, " I've seen that done before; 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



199 



that's simple enough; " all of which I grant. But surely its 
very simplicity ought to suggest a more frequent adoption 
of its principles, especially when we remember that by such 
means we are enabled to discard the use of chaplets, "a 
consummation most devoutly to be wished " in all cases. 
A little thought expended on the principles involved in 
this simple expedient will demonstrate its value as an ex- 




Fig. 115. 

cellent device for saving chaplets, and, what is far better, 
saving castings also. 

Another means for the accomplishment of this desirable 
end is to secure cores, which would otherwise need chaplets, 
by a system of double seatings. (See " The Iron Founder," 
page 245, where cores .ST and L are made independent of 
the chaplet shown, by just such an arrangement as above 
advocated.) 

It only requires ordinary ingenuity to make the latter 
method available in hundreds of instances, where the only 
seeming possible way of surmounting the difficulty is per- 
haps a rusty stud, held in position by nails picked up from 
the foundry floor. 

Avoid rust as you would a viper. The sudden decom- 



200 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

position of -gV of an inch of rust spread over the surface of 
a stud-plate 3" X 5" will produce a mould-destroying shock, 
with startling effect at the point of eruption, and extend- 
ing with a decreasing force to a distance of over six feet; 
and bar-spaces in the cope 6" wide and 10" deep, in the 
immediate viciuity of the offending plate, will be blown out 
with terrible effect sometimes, making it a positive danger 
to use such carelessly provided tackle. 

This element of danger always exists in proportion to 
the amount of rust present, and whilst a small amount may 
not possess the explosive force above described, the gases 
generated are a constant source of annoyance and loss, caus- 
ing blown places in parts of the casting which are not 
easily located; and consequently we often hear of the failure 
of a pump or cylinder after the engine has been running 
some time, and all was considered perfect. Nine times out 
of ten the verdict is, ' rusty chaplets.' 

Another illustration of how to avoid chaplets in special 
cases is shown at page 197 of " The Iron Founder," where 
cores D and E are seen to be secured by means equally 
effective, yet different in principle. The method of join- 
ing cores to front plates, as there illustrated, is eminently 
useful, and might with great advantage be more generally 
adopted for a wide range of work, both in loam and sand. 

There is no part of the moulder's trade which offers 
more opportunities for the inventive genius of the me- 
chanic than does this particular one of avoiding the use of 
chaplets, and when we think of the good accruing from 
such practice it ought to encourage every one interested 
to a pursuance of such improved methods, even if the cost 
of production be increased thereby. What if "first cost" 
be increased ! the results will more than compensate for the 
additional outlay. 

If it should occur that chaplets must be used at places 
where the casting requires to be absolutely sound, the studs 



STUBS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



201 



necessary for the job may be rammed in the centre of a 
round core, thoroughly dried, and coated with lead. This 
will leave a clean hole in the casting, which, if necessary, 
may be tapped for plugging. Another method, when using 
plain stem chaplets for thin castings, is to glue two or 
three thicknesses of thin paper on the end which enters 
the casting, with a further coating of lead, all well dried. 
This will keep the molten iron from direct contact with 
the naked chaplet, whilst the nature of the covering used 
will serve to soften the surrounding iron, making the sub- 
sequent tapping of the hole more easy of accomplishment. 
Eecognizing the fact that we cannot escape the use of 
studs and chaplets, and this in a large measure sometimes, it 






Fig. 116. 



Fig. 117. 



Fig. 118. 



behooves us to select and rightly use such as are best quali- 
fied to fulfil the mission for which they were originally 
designed. Figs. 116 and 117 represent the common solid 
stud chaplets, 1£" diameter, to be used when, because of 
danger from melting or from a lack of strength, any of the 
others would be too light. It must be borne in mind that 
studs will melt before a constant stream of very hot iron; 
even solid ones need protecting sometimes, which latter can 
be effectively done by coating the stud, as before directed. 

Fig. 118 is a solid stub, l|"x 3", for use under heavy 
loads, where, owing to the form of the mould, an ordinary 
tud could only with difficulty be made to stand. The tail A 



202 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



can be pushed into the sand or loam, and made good around; 
by this means the stud is held firmly in its place without 
fear of dislocation. A very useful modification of 1 16 and 
117 is shown at Figs. 119 and 120, which represent similar 
sizes to those quoted, and may be any degree of strength 
desirable: some very light jobs would require them no 
thicker than T J g of an inch. To make these in cast iron, 
make them in strings carrying the upper plates A in the 
cope, the bottom plates B being arranged on a core print 






Fig. 119. 



Fig. 120. 



Fig. 121. 



corresponding to the depth between A and B, the cores for 
which must be pierced at correct intervals by the connect- 
ing bar C. Where studs of this kind have been introduced 
for the first time, it invariably happens that their ability 
is overestimated, and numbers of castings are lost before 
it is discovered that these light-cast studs melt away most 
miraculously when set before the stream. 

I have shown at Fig. 121 how to make studs, similar to the 
preceding, out of wrought iron : it will be seen that bars A 
and A have been riveted to plate B, which, being prepared 
like plate C, is very easy to do; C is now set on and se- 
cured by riveting also, the parts at DD being left a little 
long for the purpose. Where it is thought that cast iron 
would be too risky, these may be substituted, as they can 
be made of any desired strength very quickly. 



STUBS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



203 



Fig. 122 is a common spring chaplet intended for binding 
and steadying only; the usefulness of these good cliaplets 
is in most places greatly marred on account of the irno- 
rance displayed in their manufacture. Ask for a springer, 
and you will probably receive a piece of rusty hoop iron 
bent in the form of a horseshoe; this, of course, answers the 
purpose of steadying the core, but how unsightly the scar 





Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. 





Fig. 124. 



Fig. 125. 



it leaves on the outside of the casting ! This objectionable 
feature can be easily overcome by a good blacksmith, or by 
the moulder himself, should the former worthy function- 
ary be -non est at that place, by following the instructions 
given, and fully illustrated by the following figures. 

At Fig. 129 the vise jaws hold a piece of iron equal in 
dimensions (less the thickness of the hoop iron) to the 
thickness of the chaplet required, against which the hoop 
iron has been jammed and hammered over, Fig. 130 show- 
ing the position of the same after the operation has been 



204 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



again repeated. This leaves the springer as shown at Fig. 

122, but only requires the ends hammering back, as seen at 
Fig. 132, to make the very useful chaplet shown at Fig. 

123. By the method above described a really good and 
useful chaplet can be obtained at very short notice. 

The several operations required to produce the double- 
hoop iron stud, Fig. 125, are shown in their order at Figs. 




Fig. 126. 



Fig. 127. 



Fig. 128. 



134, 136, and 138; and any modification of this class of 
studs; such as the one shown at Fig. 124, which may be 
made witli or without the tail A, may be very readily made 
by the simple manner described, which gives an elegant 
chaplet with an absolutely true face, thus obviating the 
trouble previou ly spoken of. 

A most effective and proper stem chaplet is shown at 
Fig. 126, its chief characteristic being that the head A is 
forgad with the stem, and additional strength allowed at 
the juncture. A good blacksmith finds no difficulty in 
forging chaplets of this class with heads 2 inches across; 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



205 



this, of course, leaves no excuse for using those abortions 
which are supposed to be riveted fast, but almost always 
separate at the first blow of the hammer. 

Plainly stated, the plain wrought one shown at Fig. 127 
is the stud par excellence of them all, as it can be made to 
answer for an almost unlimited number of emergencies, as 
will be noticed more fully further on. 

Fig. 128 represents a class of stud that, in some special 
instances, may be made very useful and handy; the one 
shown is 1" diameter at the stem A, and 2|" diameter at 
plate B. Being cast iron, these chaplets are apt to snap 
off below the casting, leaving an unsightly scar; to prevent 
this, let the pattern from which they are cast be nicked, as 





Fig. 129. 



Fig. 130. 



seen at C, a little above the thickness of the casting for 
which they are intended; what remains after the upper 
portion is knocked off can then be chipped true to the 
face. 

When practicable, it is always best to place these chap- 
lets in their respective positions on the pattern, and ram 
them in the cope, to be afterwards withdrawn, and the 
front edge of the hole enlarged by a taper plug made for 
the purpose. By this mode of procedure two very impor- 
tant ends are gained, viz., accuracy as to position, and free- 
dom from anxiety with regard to the edge of the hole, 
which, being clear of the chaplet, allows for its easy motion 
in either direction without fear of damage to the cope. 

To those unaccustomed to the use of a variety of studs 
and chaplets, Fig. 131 will be of interest, and serve the 



206 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



purpose of an object-lesson; it is the sectional elevation of 
a 36" X 36" column having internal webs formed by cores, 
and as all these cores are entirely surrounded with iron, 
they must of necessity be supported, steadied, and anchored 




American Machht 



Fig. 13!. 

down by a system of studs or chaplets, or, as is seen in this 
case, it may be a combination of both. 

Beginning with the two lower cores, it will be seen that 
three different means are shown for supporting them, the 
right-hand core being upheld by f" stem chaplets A and B, 
which are driven firmly into the block of wood (^previ- 
ously set down 12' below the surface for this purpose. 

The left-hand core is upheld by a method much superior 
to the other, especially when the weight to be borne is great; 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



207 



in this case one of the same chaplets used at AB is used at 
D, but because the foundation is iron a blunt end is best. 
An entirely different mode of procedure is necessitated 
when the square supports E are used, as in this event all 
the supports E must be set in position when the bed is 
formed for the bottom of the mould, the pattern being set 




Fig. 132. 




Fig. 133. 




Fig. 136. 

exactly over them; all that is then necessary, when ready 
for the cores, is to set on each support a stud like the one 
seen at F, which is supposed to be similar to Figs. 116 or 117. 
It will be observed that chaplet Fig. 125 is permanent at 
G, being nailed fast to the right-hand core; whilst at H 
and /springers, Fig. 124, are used for the purpose of bind- 
ing the whole together. The dry cores shown at this place 



208 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



are for the special purpose of permitting this to be done 
effectually. 

Stud chaplets corresponding to Figs. 116, 120, and 119 are 
set between the remaining cores; the blunt stem chaplets J 
and K, Fig. 126, being the permanent rests against which 
the cores are pressed by springer L. At the top cores a 
chaplet similar to Fig. 123 is nailed fast at M, and chaplets 
NO are pressed inwards by the application of wedges be- 
hind, as seen. 

Chaplets like Fig. 128 are used on the left-hand top core 





Fig. 134. 



;,.; 


'A- -'■"••*-: 


l'» 


K~ 


Jvjjti 


-J } 


^M^ 



Fig. 135. 



Fig. 137. 



at PQ; this may be done when dependence can be placed 
on the surface of such chaplet being sufficient to resist the 
upward pressure without crushing the core. In any case, 
nowever, the plain studs R and S, Fig. 127, are the best, as 
ample provision can be made to meet every emergency by 
he placing of suitable blocks when the core is made on 
which the stud can rest, as seen at T and U. 

One other very important thing remains to be done, and 
the system is complete, viz., to set the binding-beam Facross 
the cope, resting on the outer edge at just such a height as 
will permit of two wedges, not one, being used for the pur- 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



209 



pose of securing the studs as seen at Fand Z. Imperfect 
wedging at the last is a frequent cause of disaster, and only 
ignorant or very careless men are derelict in this particular. 
Especially should care be exercised when cast-iron wedges 
are the only ones obtainable; in this event a piece of 
wrought iron should be set in immediate contact with the 
stud, with the wedges over; by pursuing this course a 
cracked wedge will be likely to create less havoc than 
might be the case otherwise. 

Fig. 133 illustrates how to use chaplets like Fig. 125, 
when it might be difficult to set studs into the mould 
proper. By simply nailing them fast to the core, the latter 



Fig. i3j. 




Fig. 139. 



becomes in some measure self-centring— a thing to be de- 
sired in quite a number of jobs. 

Fig. 135 shows three kinds of fast chaplets for use in dry- 
sand work when the position of the mould must be changed 
for casting. The one at A is to be set in to exact depth 
when the mould is green, while those at B and Care equally 
applicable to both loam and dry sand, as they can be firmly 
attached to any part of the mould, when dry, without fear 
of displacement; the one at is eminently useful when a 
stud is required to be fastened on a covering-plate or cope. 

Fig. 137 shows how cores may be firmly held in dry-sand 
moulds, that must be turned on end, with chaplets of the 
type shown at Fig. 126 exclusively, all of which can be in- 
serted when the mould is green. For some kinds of lisrht 



210 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



work for which there is constant demand this is an admir- 
able method, and saves both time and labor. 

How to close moulds almost as readily in green sand by 
using similar chaplets is shown at Fig. 139, anchorage for 

-Jj jL 

7zrfvr! VV////////M 




Fig 141. 



which is obtained by casting pockets in the flask opposite 
to where the chaplet is required to be set, into which are 
driven wood plugs. All that is needed then is to sharpen 
the chaplets to a length suitable for taking a firm grip in 
the wood, and the end is accomplished. A good illustra- 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



211 



tion of the usefulness of this scheme is given at Fig. 140, 
which is a partial representation of the section of a cylin- 
der-head cope immediately over one of the suspended cores. 
Usually these cores, six or eight in number, are held in 
place by three bearings or prints to each core, which serve 
the purpose of anchoring to the cope as well as to carry off 
the gas, and all of these must be tapped and plugged after 
the core has been taken out. 

Instead of the three prints mentioned above, let pockets 
be provided in the flask-bars at A, and pursue the course 
previously explained; there will then be three firmly fixed 
chaplets B in the cope, on which to rest the core, one hole 
in the centre being sufficient through which to carry the 






Fig. 142. 



Fig. 143. 



Fig. 144. 



air and effect an anchorage. A double-threaded gas-pipe 
C, which enters the core-iron by means of a nut cast there- 
in at D, serves the double purpose of vent-pipe and anchor, 
as will be seen by a careful inspection of the figure. The 
question of economy should at once decide in favor of this 
proposed scheme, for only eight holes require plugging, in- 
stead of twenty-four, as in the former instance. The pos- 
sibilities for other jobs by this method are truly marvellous, 
with the margin of safety increased tenfold. 

To all who may be still digging holes and driving chaplet- 
blocks A after the manner seen on the right hand of Fig. 
141, 1 would ask them to look on the other side of the figure, 
where a round cast-block 3|" diameter across the edge at 
B, extending 5" down to a point at C, is driven down, on 
which stud D is resting, and say whether the end cannot 



212 



THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



be much better served by the method suggested. For cores 
up to 12" this little block is a wonder, very few believiug 




l*=3 


A 


j=j5] 



Fig. 145. 



American Machinist 




Fig. 146. 



the amount of weight they will safely bear until they have 
tried them. 

Fig. 142 shows the top half of a 12-inch pipe, on which a 
chaplet of the common riveted type has been used; the 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



213 



thin plate A has yielded to the combined influence of heat 
and pressure, with the result shown. Fig. 143 shows a de- 
cided improvement in the form of chaplet, but the bulki- 
ness of the button A makes it absolutely necessary that 
thickness be added at B, which gives a very unsightly ap- 
pearance to the casting. Both of these evils can be totally 
remedied by adopting the loose stud A, resting on a stud- 
plate rammed in the core, as seen at Fig. 144. 

Fig. 145 represents a half column in green sand 4 feet 
diameter, with dry-sand core resting on curved stud chap- 
lets of the type shown at Fig. 118. Foundation-plates A, 



■-;;■ ■' - 




Fig. 147. 



3 ft. 6 in.X 1 ft., with supports B (cast on), extending up 
to and assuming the curve of the casting, are set down 
solid with the curved surface of the supports flush with the 
pattern when the bed is formed, thus giving solid bearing 
for the studs C. Should there be danger of the core yield- 
ing, provision must be made by inserting suitable bearings, 
which will meet the studs C. 

Fig. 146 shows how to provide for using the same kind of 
studs in a hollow cone 4 ft. diameter, 3 ft. 6 in. deejj, in 
green sand, with dry core in sections. 

Cores of whatever magnitude may be made to rest with 
the greatest degree of safety on stud chaplets when suitable 
provision is made, as seen at Fig. 147. The figure is a sec- 



214 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



tional view of the lower edge of a loam mould of large di- 
mensions, the core of which must rest positively on stud 
chaplets; this, as shown, is made possible by the aid of 
square supports A, set down on the foundation-plate D, 
and built in along with the lower courses, which forms the 
bottom of. the mould at E. The studs B, cast on the core 
covering-plate F, directly opposite to the supports A, com- 
plete the arrangement, and permit of any amount of added 
weight above being supported with safety by stud chap- 
lets^ C. 

Figs. 148 and 149 will serve to explain some modes for 




lUllmumilliiHiililP 1 

Fig. 148. 



securing chaplets in both sand and loam work. Fig. 148 is 
a partial view of the top covering-plate of a loam-mould, 
with the upper edge of core revealed, on which are resting 
stud chaplets A and B, but there are times when under 
heavy pressures the loam must yield; it is then important 
that other means of resistance be provided. The stud C 
can then be resorted to, there being no difficulty in making 
it fast when clamp D is cast directly over the hole made to 
receive it. 

If it be required that the studs shall pass through the 
covering-plate after the mould is closed, then cast in the 
clamps clear of the holes, as seen at E and F, and pack the 



STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 



21i 



studs by means of the bar G. This expedient is far su- 
perior to any of the modes of securing studs by means of 
outside rigging. 

Fig. 149 shows a portion of cope flask A, on the front end 
of which, at B, is shown the sort of cast girder needed for 
very heavy work; this, as seen, must be made fast to the 
flask by clamps or bolts at G before the chaplets are wedged. 
The style of bar shown at C is intended for regular use on 
ordinary work ; it must be understood that the end at His 




Fig. 149. 

similar to that at 7, but is pulled in under the flange to 
allow of the latter end passing clear of the flange at J, 
when it can be pushed back until one half of the clamp 
end at Ids equally divided under the flanges at both sides. 
Supposing the box flange to be 2h inches wide, this will 
give one inch, good, at both ends, and is amply sufficient 
for wedging purposes; this combination of bar and clamps 
is a very useful contrivance for all ordinary work, and saves 
considerable trouble. 

For all work that is repeated day after day, it pays well 
to rig a flask after the manner shown at D E, or F, as in 



216 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the former instance; the bar L passed through the holes D 
and E serves for an almost instant adjustment of the chap- 
let; the same may be observed with regard to the single 
bar expedient at F, where the chaplet can be inserted be- 
fore the cope is turned up for closing, after which a couple 
of wedges under M decide the matter even quicker than is 
possible by the former arrangement. 



HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. 

EXPLAINED BY A DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT WAYS OF 
MOULDING A FOUR-WAY VENTILATING-SHAFT. 

The following excellent example may with propriety be 
termed advanced practice in the art of moulding. Un- 
varied success in producing castings of this type is only 
possible when the most skilful workmen are employed to 
produce it. 

This particular carting has been selected for illustration 
on this occasion, because in its numerous and varied phases 
under altered circumstances, superinduced by the lack of 
facilities in some foundries for making such work readily, 
it presents a wide range of difficulties, that can be success- 
fully met only when the best efforts of the most adroit 
artisan are put forth. 

At Fig. 150 is shown the plan and elevation of a four- 
chambered ventilating-shaft 4 feet diameter, 11 feet long, 
and 1\ inches thick all through. The casting as seen is 
simply a plain cylinder, with internal webs that intersect 
each other at right angles at the centre, extending through- 
out its entire length, and forming four separate compart- 
ments, or chambers. 

Founders having no facilities for moulding such a casting 



HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 917 

vertically in 10am, but who are in every sense well equipped 
for its production in halves in green sand, would naturally 
hesitate about sub-letting the job at a considerably ad- 
vanced figure, if bolting the halves together violated no 
part of their contract. 

Fig. 151 is plan and elevation of the half casting for this 
purpose, showing the web at A to be slightly reduced in 
thickness, and still further lightened by the eight openings, 
marked from B to /, respectively, for one half; six similar 
openings in the other half to be set exactly between, as 
indicated by the broken lines, giving space sufficient for a 
bed of cement that is to be applied for the prevention 
of leakage from one chamber to another. 

The subject now resolves itself into the moulding of two 
castings, one of which, the half, is to be cast horizontally 
in green sand with dry-sand cores, and the whole one ver- 
tically in loam, with cores after various methods, to be 
illustrated further on. As previously stated, these castings 
are good examples of their kind, calling forth and develop- 
ing ideas of moulding, which, if intelligently understood, 
may be made of universal application. 

We will first consider the half one in green sand (Fig. 
151), and before we sit in judgment on what appears so 
plain a job, let us examine into some of the chief features 
connected with it. 

Firstly. The core weighs in the neighborhood of seven 
tons, a large proportion of which weight must be borne on 
studs necessarily. This of course must be provided for by 
preparing good foundations for the studs and a more than 
ordinarily solid core, the latter to be divided in such manner 
as will be most convenient for drying, handling, setting, 
and anchoring. 

Secondly. The pressure under this core is over twenty 
tons, and this pressure must be resisted by a judicious dis- 
tribution of chaplets and studs, which must rest on suitably 



218 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



provided iron bearings in the cores, as the latter must be 
held in position by a greater weight above, or, what is bet- 




Fig. 150. 




Fig. 151. 



ter, by a system of binders sufficiently strong to resist the 
upward pressure. We must not omit to remember here 
that pressure is exerted in every direction as long as the 



HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 219 

metal is in a molten condition; consequently the green-sand 
mould needs to be well made if it is expected to retain its 
original shape under such a test. 

Thirdly. As such a casting would weigh about three tons, 
it would be judicious to divide the iron, pouring one half 
at each end by a system of ruuners cut under the core, as 
described in chapter on "Pouring,'' etc., page 192. This 
would strengthen the ends of the casting by insuring a 
supply of hot iron at those parts to the last, and would 
sensibly lessen the damage from abrasion, which is un- 
pleasantly noticeable when large quantities of iron enter 
the mould at one place. 

Starting with the above knowledge of the chief require- 
ments, we are more than half-equipped for the undertaking 
before a blow is struck. How much of this power of intro- 
spection is lacking amongst us as a class is only too well 
known, and to the lack of this ability to judge of the needs 
and requirements in the case most of the disasters that are 
constantly occurring may be traced : plainly demonstrating 
that Ave as moulders are not equal to the demands made 
on our ingenuity and judgment, because of the almost uni- 
versal ignorance which prevails among us as a class. 

The magnitude of this job demands a reliable substitute 
for the prevailing method of 'rolling over/ and this may 
be found in the bed-sweep, or former, shown at Fig. 152, 
consisting of two boards A and B, equal to the circle of the 
shaft-pattern, and held together by the straight edges C 
and D, the length of which corresponds to the length of 
the pattern. There must be width sufficient to make the 
ramming of the remainder an easy matter after the pattern 
has been set upon the formed bed. 

Let the reader turn to Fig. 153, which is a sectional view 
of the whole mould when everything has been achieved up 
to the closing of the cope ; but before Ave attempt any 
description of the methods adopted for the accomplishment 



220 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



of what is there seen, it will be best to understand the sys- 
tem of coring as here applied. Literally speaking, this job 
can be made with two cores formed on strong arbors full 




Fig. 152. 







Fig. 153. 

length of the casting; but preference may with considerable 
reason be made of the means herein represented, inasmuch 
as it accomplishes the object with equal facility by a 
number of pieces that are soon dried, and can be readily 
handled, whilst the arrangement of the core-iron for the 



HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 



221 



bottom sections of core, makes, what in either case would 
be a tedious undertaking, a very simple piece of work. 

To set these cores on either side of the web separately 
would be a critical operation, on account of the tendency 
to slide off the studs towards the centre. This difficulty is 
effectually met in this case by uniting the two bottom sec- 
tions of cores at the bearing C,Fig. 154, also at A and E, at 
which points the core-iron is allowed to pass through the 




Fig. 154. 

casting, thus making one firm core out of both. The irons 
are easily snapped off when the casting is cleaned. 

Fig 154, D, shows the end view of frame for making this 
section of core. The frame is made one foot longer than 
the half of the shaft, and simply rests over the core- iron, as 
shown by broken lines at D. This frame and a smooth 
plate is all the core-box required for this part of the job, as 
the core can be easily turned over when dry, and lifted into 
the mould with ropes round the cross-bars at B, D, and E. 



222 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

By this means staples for lifting are unnecessary, and the 
surface is consequently left clear for the upper sections of 
core to rest on. 

The upper cores A and B, Fig. 153, four in number, may 
be made on a smooth plate with the upper face down, to be 
reversed again when dry, in which event sides and ends 
with a temporary preparation for the circle on one side will 
be all the core-box needed at this part. Remembering the 
amount of pressure that this core is called upon to resist, 
there must be no mistake about having the stud-plates 
and D, Fig. 153, to rest firmly, iron and iron, on whatever 
system of core-irons may be used for the purpose. On the 
other hand, remembering the amount of weight that the 
bottom sections must sustain, equal attention must be paid 
to the selection of material that will hold the weight with- 
out fracture at the point of contact with the stud. But 
should the strength of the material used be found in- 
adequate to the work, then make such an arrangement as 
will insure the stud to press directly against the core-iron, 
in which case, assurance is made doubly sure. 

Supposing our cores to be all ready, we will at once 
proceed to make the mould, giving reasons for the several 
operations as we proceed. The mould, as shown at Fig. 153, 
is contained in the floor; but it is far preferable to have a 
lower box constructed of stout sides, with external flanges 
to correspond with those at E and F, the depth of which 
may be about 2 feet, standing out of the floor about half its 
depth. These sides must be connected with extra-strong 
cross-bars extending down under the job, making it only 
necessary to clamp or bolt the two flanges at E and F to- 
gether in order to secure anything that may be cast therein. 
The upper flange can be utilized for holding down cores, as 
in this case, after the manner shown in chapter on "Studs, 
Chaplets," etc., page 215. 

After a good cinder-bed has been laid down at G, 12 



HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 223 

inches below the bottom of the mould, ram solid to within 
6 inches, and set down the bed-former, Fig. 152, at such 
depth as will bring the pattern, when set thereon, even with 
the joint of the flask at E, Fig. 153. The former will serve 
as a guide for placing the anchor-plates H in such numbers 
and position as will best serve the purpose of supporting 
the cores. A knowledge of the weight these must carry 
will suggest the propriety of having them on solid ground; 
otherwise they will be pressed downward, and a consequent 
diminution of the thickness at the bottom of the casting 
ensue. 

The anchor-plates satisfactorily set, proceed to ram old 
sand within the frame to within one inch of the surface, 
when the whole must be vented down to the cinders, after 
which the facing sand can be applied by treading an extra 
thickness all over as evenly as possible; the surplus can 
then be struck off to the frame. After the frame has been 
lifted out, continue the ramming to the edge of the formed 
bed, set on the pattern, and proceed to ram along the re- 
maining portion of the pattern in the usual w;iy. 

This mode of bed-forming will be found infinitely supe- 
rior to any other for 'bedding in ' for not only large circular, 
but all classes of work with surfaces more or less irregular. 

As we close this mould we realize very sensibly the advan- 
tages gained by the methods adopted for moulding it. We 
know that the foundations H are solid; that the studs II, 
in consequence of the wedge attachment at the back, are 
immovable thereon; that the bottom section of cores, safely 
held together by the cross-bars, cannot be changed from 
their position, and constitute a safe bed whereon to set the 
upper cores, A and B, without fear of failure. All this, we 
say, conspires to make the closing of this mould a marvel 
of simplicity, dispatch, and safety. 

As a loam job, to be cast whole and in vertical position, 
we encounter a new order of things altogether; the re- 



•2*24: THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

quirements are so much different from the case we have 
been discussing as to make the business of moulding this 
shaft in loam appear another trade. 

As we propose to mould this in its entire length, a suffi- 
cient height of oven and crane, as well as depth of pit, are 
prime requisites. It might be that an indifference as to 
inside finish could be taken advantage of, and the labor on 
the core considerably reduced thereby. A method of 
moulding under such circumstances will be shown, as well 
as a more elaborate one, in case it should be necessary to 
separate the parts in order to a perfect finish, inside as 
well as outside. 

Whilst it might not, in this particular instance, be de- 
sirable to adopt a system of drj'-sand cores, yet changes of 
design might make such a course indispensable ; therefore a 
method calculated to meet the altered circumstances will be 
discussed and suitably illustrated as we pursue the subject. 

It would be superfluous to go through every detail con- 
nected with the moulding of such a casting; therefore, in 
dealing with this subject, we shall pass over all the ordinary 
processes of loam-moulding (fully discussed and illustrated 
iu "The Iron-Founder" page 147), and confine ourselves 
to those parts only that possess more than ordinary interest 
to the workman. 

To those who may be unacquainted with this particular 
class of work it may be well to state that a quadrant of 4 
feet diameter does not make a very stable structure, in 
loam, when built to the height of 12 feet, and some method 
must be devised whereby the divided core may not only be 
handled, but conveyed in and out of the oven, and finally 
to the pit for casting. 

We will first consider how best to make such a mould if 
it were allowed to deliver the casting with no more finish 
to the inside webs than could be given them by reaching 
from the outside. Under such circumstanoes the cores 



HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. 



225 



might be built stationary on the foundation-plate, but, as 
before said, something must be done to save the fabric 




Fig. 155. 

from settling out of shape during the process of transit 
from the centre to the oven and back. 

Fig. 155 is a representation of such a core under course 
of construction after the cope has been struck and lifted 
away. The outside bearing is seen at A, and cores B are 



226 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

built a short distance up, where a break is made for the 
purpose of placing the first of four similar plates, or frames, 
that are to be built into the cores at intervals of 2' 101- ", 
which distances would bring the last one U" from the top. 
It is at once observed that the four quadrants are joined 
together, and form, as it were, a whole cast frame by allow- 
ing the connection to pass through the web at C ; it will 
also be noticed that V's are formed round the connecting 
piece to insure a clean break, uniform with the casting, when 
the irons are broken out. 

Patterns for the webs are, in this case, made 2' 10£" 
long; eight pieces only are needed, as the under ones can 
be drawn when the building has reached the top edge of 
the upper one. It will also be seen at C, D, and E that 
provision for the connecting web is made by cutting out 
a portion of the pattern, the pieces F and G being neces- 
sarily made loose and pinned, this permits them to be taken 
out after the web pattern has been withdrawn. 

In this case the core-sweep H need be but a few inches 
longer than will finish off each length of core as they are 
built. In building these cores have all plates 1 \" clear of 
the casting, and be sure that the brickwork is very open, 
well cindered, and all loam as porous as possible. The 
holes JK indicate that a short length of 4" pipe is to be 
used for building up to, drawing it up as the work pro- 
gresses; the cindered spaces leading up to that point 
guarantee a sure connection at each course as they are laid. 

It is important that that portion of the core-plates which 
passes through the casting should be as free as possible 
from sand and blackening, otherwise they might be found 
loose when the irons were broken out of the cores. 

In order to reach the inside for a superior finish we 
must lift out two opposite cores. How this may be done 
will be shown by the aid of Figs. 15G and 157, where the 
whole process is delineated in detail, cores A and B, Fig. 



HIGII-CLASS MOULDING. 



227 



156. being the ones to be lifted out. Referring to Fig. 157, 
we see the foundation-plate at A ; bearing for the cope at 




Fig. 156. 

B; cope-ring at C ; and the inside lifting-plates, with a por- 
tion of the cores built, are seen in position. It is always 



228 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



preferable to have the inside plates made as seen, so that 
their own impression forms the joint, and leaves them alto- 
gether free from loam. 

The manner of setting these inside plates is as follows : 
First, strike a bed for the bottom, lay out the quadrants, 
and, after cleaning and oiling the plates, set them in their 
exact position opposite each other, bed them down solid, 
and then build on a course and strike off a little above the 
plates all over; this gives the bed for the ribs as well as 



33 



u^i 



:■ i— J-i 

[•□□ 

LOuO 



T -fA wA 






go 



%ZXi 



''.■■;■_ 



~W m 



33 



apcuii^ 



3 




Fig. 157. 

the bearing for the cope-ring at B. The bed, as formed 
by the plate, is shown at C, Fig. 156, whilst the plate in 
position would appear as seen at D in the same figure. 

In this case it is best to have the web patterns made 
full length, set into position, and used as bearings on which 
to run a strickle vertically, thus obviating the use of the 
sweep-board altogether — a thing most devoutly to be wished 
for when the cores are very long, as in this instance. 

The webs being all set in position, place the bolts as 
seen at D, with a wedge underneath to keep them up snug, 
and if a template is prepared answering to the position of 
the bolt-holes in plate at E, it may be lowered around the 
tops of the bolts and screwed fast to the webs, thus serving 
tlie double purpose of keeping the webs in place and hold- 



HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 229 

ing the bolts in position whilst the cores are being built. 
For reasons obvious, a four-inch perforated pipe is prepared 
for each of these cores, to be built in the centre and stand 
out through the covering plate, as shown at i^and G, Fig. 
157, the object of this being that a plate, or cross, Fig. 159, 
with holes cast corresponding to the position of the pipes, 
may be firmly wedged around the pipes during the time 
that the cores are being moved about on the foundation- 
plate. Holes cast in the covering- plate through which the 
pipes pass, as seen at Fig. 157, can be utilized for the pur- 
pose of stiffening the whole structure after the mould is 
closed. 

These cores are to be further strengthened by building in 
plates, as shown at F, Fig. 116, at about three places before 
6" from the top is reached, when the plate shown at E is to 
be set on as seen, and the nuts screwed down. The hand- 
ling of these cores is done by the three staples seen, which, 
when a three-legged buckle chain is used, can be easily 
regulated to a plumb-line. 

The pipes, in conjunction with the building-rings, stiffen 
the core laterally, as well as serve the purpose of a direct 
medium through which the gas can pass away freely at the 
top. The same precautions are to be taken in this case, as 
in the last, to have an open-built core with cinders form- 
ing a channel towards the holes in the pipe at every course. 

As before explained, the cores C and F are to be sta- 
tionary, consequently there will be nothing except the per- 
forated pipe, and about six of the building-plates used in 
their construction. The bolt G is shown simply to give 
some idea of how core A would appear when that height 
had been reached. 

Of course it becomes an easy matter to finish the inside 
of this mould when these opposite cores are taken away, as 
illustrated above. 

The simplest method of making full-length dry-sand 



230 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



cores for this casting is shown at Fig. 158. To be sure in 
this case 8 cores, each 6 feet long, could be used effectually 
if it were necessary to adopt that mode of procedure ; but 
we set out to discover a means of making them in one 
length, supposing that a contingency might on some occa- 
sion present itself which would admit of no other solution 
to the difficulty. 

The chief prerequisites in this case are : first, an arbor 




American-Machinist 



Fig. 158. 



or core-iron as light as possible, and yet strong enough 
laterally to stand turning up on end without springing; 
second, that the end bearing must be iron, and indepen- 
dent of the sand core; and third, that means be taken 
to insure a safe elevation of the core, and having the same? 
to hang plumb for closing in the mould. 

The end section and side elevation of a suitable arbor 
for such a core is shown at A and B, Fig. 158, the dimen- 
sions being 2" thick and 12" deep, on which wings Care 
to be firmly wedged, as seen at A. The bottom wing must 
be made extra strong, and must have a stud 3" diameter 



HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. 231 

cast at each corner, and when the core-iron is placed in the 
core-box these studs must rest against the bottom of the 
core-box, as seen ut G, H, J, and K. These studs must be 
placed to correspond with bearings set upon the founda- 
tion-plate, and even with the seatings formed to receive 
the core ; by this means the weight of the core is made to 
rest independent of the sand seating. 

As seen, this bottom wing is securely held both ways by 
wedged pins inserted at holes L and M, provided for the 
purpose. Other holes, not seen, are to be used at intervals 
in a similar manner, with the view of distributing the 




Fig. 159. 

weight of the core along the bar, and not depending en- 
tirely on the wedges which bind the wings to the bar. 

Additional stiffness may be given to this core at the bot- 
tom by casting intermediate studs 1' diameter on the wings 
at N, 0, P, R, S, and T, as far back as is thought neces- 
sary. This core can be made readily in a box after the 
manner shown at UU, the rolling over being effected by 
securing a stout wood frame at VV, filling in with old sand 
and bricks, and bolting or clamping the core-plate there- 
on, taking care to wedge between the plate and core-iron 
at IF and X before rolling over, the latter precaution being 
necessary when the arbor is heavy, as in this case. 

Six inches of sand, rammed solid to the face, is all that 
would be required for a core of this description; the re- 
maining portion, or heart of the core, can be cinders. 



232 



TBE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



Once dry, the rest is simple, as the core can be safely 
transorted by means of the holes I^and Z, the latter hole 
being made oblong for the purpose of regulating the swing 
when closing into the mould. The mode of swinging is 
shown at Fig. 160 and consists of a wood block A about 18" 




Fig. 160. 



square, rammed firmly in the floor for about 2| feet, the top 
end of which must have a groove cut thereon nearly as 
deep as that portion of the arbor that extends past the 
end of the core, and about the width of the same. 

The elevation of this core is easily accomplished by 
means of the shackle B, which is made to fit the arbor, 
and is provided with a threaded pin that precludes all pos- 
sibility of the shackle spreading. 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 233 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR HEAVY GREEN- 
SAND WORK. 

INCLUDING DRAWBACKS, CRITICAL GREEN-SAND CORES, 
ETC. ; OR, SOME THINGS BEYOND THE CAPACITY OF 
THE MOULDING-MACHINE. 

A casual observer of the foundry business to-day, more 
particularly such foundries as make a specialty of match- 
work, with and without the moulding-machine, would be 
apt to make a very serious mistake, and imagine that brains 
were a superfluous commodity, that need not be taken into 
account when the question of hiring moulders was upper- 
most. It would appear at the places above noted that 
the moulder has been reduced to a mere automaton or pat- 
ent 'Kodak/ with this immense disadvantage, that be- 
fore the button is touched for you to 'do the rest* the 
operator must move considerable sand and perform an 
amount of athletics truly astonishing, clearly demonstrat- 
ing the fact that no matter at whatever degree brains 
might be rated in this undertaking, muscle is most assur- 
edly at a discount. 

A little thought will serve to dispel some of the illusions 
which are apt to creep in while contemplating this inter- 
esting subject. All this remarkable display of muscular 
energy has most undoubtedly been forced upon us by the 
ever-increasing demands of manufacturers for a larger 
number of castings at reduced rates, and is but the natural 
outcome of a healthy rivalry and legitimate competition 
by intelligent founders to secure the lion's share of this 
largely augmented business. 



234 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

' The Moulding Machine has come to stay/ no matter 
how much opposition maybe brought to bear against it; 
and, on the whole, I cannot see why there should have 
been such widespread opposition to its more general adop- 
tion. Other trades have proved how utterly impossible it 
is to stem the tide of modern improvements in labor-sav- 
ing machinery; it therefore behooves us to accept the inev- 
itable, and gracefully welcome the iron man as one of the 
' fraternity.' Wherever the machine can be utilized for 
the production of castings, a truer and more perfect du- 
plicate of the pattern is obtained in consequence of the 
absolute regularity and precision of the whole operation; 
the ramming or pressing of the sand around the patterns 
being in every instance the same, while the withdrawal of 
the patterns and the subsequent closing of parts insures a 
degree of accuracy impossible of attainment by the ordi- 
nary processes. 

It is gratifying to notice that the various improvements 
in electric and pneumatic cranes are being taken advan- 
tage of around the mould ing-in;ichiues, making it infinitely 
easier for the operators, and naturally enabling them to 
accomplish a larger amount of work. I am looking for- 
ward to an early application to this industry of some of 
the numerous admirable methods of mixing and conveying 
which might be readily adopted, and thus aid in handling 
the immense amount of sand that must be used every day. 
"This is a consummation most devoutly to be wished." 

Admitting that the moulding-machine has well-estab- 
lished claims for recognition, and also that superior cast- 
ings, within certain limits as to magnitude and diversity 
of parts, can be produced by its use, yet there will, I pre- 
sume, always be a very big margin of castings to make de- 
manding the ripest judgment and calling forth the highest 
order of constructive ability for their successful accom- 
plishment. 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN SAND WORE. 235 

Scientific papers and trade journals hasten to inform 
their readers of the immense number of castings produced 
in an hour by the aid of some new contrivance, and every 
reflective moulder gets a twinge once in a while when he 
learns of the almost superhuman efforts made by some one 
of his craft to 'beat the record' and produce a larger 
amount of work in a given time than has ever before been 
accomplished, but we seldom hear much of the patient 
plodding and anxious hours, and weeks in some instances, 
which have been industriously spent to produce some of 
the very intricate and critical work that is being made in 
our best foundries every day. 

To rightly determine who do this work is not a very 
hard matter, simply because the bad and mediocre mould- 
ers constitute the large majority, making it absolutely 
impossible for genius to fail in commanding attention, 
no matter how modest and unassuming the individual 
may be. 

To have the confidence of one's employer or foreman is 
a source of inward satisfaction to any man; but, gratifying 
as this most assuredly is, it is as nothing compared with 
the infinite pleasure which accompanies a sense of your 
ability to help those around you who unfeignedly acknowl- 
edge your superiority and disinterestedly seek your aid. 
To command such proud distinction should be the aim of 
every young moulder who aspires to a leadership among 
his fellows; but unless the aspirant for such high honors 
determines to master the first principles of his trade, no 
such eminence awaits him ; he may rest assured that no 
amount of pretence or bombast will successfully take the 
place of talent when the latter quality is absolutely essen- 
tial. 

With the view of inculcating first principles in the 
minds of such moulders as are anxious to examine into and 
obtain a more extended knowledge of these subjects, I 



236 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

propose taking up the several principles one by one, using 
familiar illustrations in order to their proper elucidation. 

When we say that a mould, in the ordinary acceptance of 
the term, consists of an upper or cope part, in which the 
impression of the top side of the pattern is carried; and a 
lower, or nowal part, containing the impression of all the 
remaining parts of the pattern, — we have perhaps said suf- 
ficient to satisfy the ordinary seeker after knowledge of a 
general kind. How far this generalizing comes short of the 
real thing can only he understood by such as are more or 
less skilled in the multitudinous intricacies attending prac- 
tice of a higher order. 

Aside from the special ability which enables the moulder 
to manipulate the material out of which he fashions his 
mould, there is constant and imperative demands on a 
mature judgment, coupled with a measure of constructive 
ability sufficient to enable him to carry and secure all the 
parts of his mould, not only accurately, but with absolute 
safety; and, be it remembered, he must meet every exi- 
gency entirely unaided by any of the 'helps' which his 
more fortunate brethren in the iron industries can so easily 
avail themselves of. 

Presuming that the student in these things has been 
correctly instructed in all that pertains to a knowledge of 
moulding common objects, we will inquire into methods 
and principles called forth in the moulding of work greater 
in magnitude and more elegant in design. One of the 
chiei essentials for moulding the class of work above men- 
tioned is to separate the mould into as many parts as will 
enable the workman to extract his pattern undamaged, as 
well as to leave his mould as free from fracture as possible; 
and, at the same time, easy access for finishing, setting, 
and securing cores, etc., must be provided for. 

As previously stated in "The Iron-Founder/' page 171, it 
is much easier to accomplish all this in loam than in sand, 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 237 

for what might be a comparatively easy job if done in 
loam, becomes at once a critical undertaking when at- 
tempted in green sand. It is to the latter class of work 
that this present writing is devoted. 

Figs. 161, 162, and 163 represent cross-sections of a class 
of work commonly met with in almost all of our tool and 
engine shops, the first being that of an ordinary lathe 





Fig. 161. 




Fig. 162. 





Fig. 163. 



oed, while the latter may be taken for either engine or 
machine foundations. Choice has been made of these 
common objects simply because they offer the best oppor- 
tunity for a review of the underlying principles which must 
govern the moulder who essays the accomplishment of all 
such jobs, and the treatment of these will serve as a guide, 
and apply to all others of a like nature. 

One great feature in all castings similar to Fig. 161 is to 
obtain a perfect and clean surface at the parts A, A, and 
this can only be accomplished by casting the mould in the 



238 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



position shown at Fig. 164. This method insures a com- 
tivoly clean surface at those parts, whilst the sullage, 
which always forms and rises into the upper parts of the 
mould, finds a lodgment where it is less objectionable. 

When the mould is wide, as in this case, and the outside 
projections, A and B, are narrow, the inside can be lifted 
out and the mould finished without much trouble; but to 
effect this properly we must first have those portions of 



K 




? 



Fig. 164. 



the pattern marked A, B, C, and D made separate from 
the hody, as shown at Fig. 164. The body can then rest on 
the bottom surface of the mould, and the loose pieces, in 
suitable lengths for drawing, laid against it afterwards. 

The reasons for this arrangement will be fully appreci- 
ated if it be understood that when the body of the pattern 
has been withdrawn from the sand, the core G can be 
lifted out with perfect freedom, and the inside pieces C 
and D can be taken away without damaging the joint at 
//, H. The pieces A and B can be then drawn inwards, 
the operation being materially facilitated by having ample 
draught at 7, I. 

So much for the general features connected with mould- 
ing this job; but we have not considered how all this is to 
be done. The casting may be 12 or perhaps 30 feet long: 
if the former length, then one lifting-plate would suffice; 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 239 

but in the event of the latter, it might be advisable to have 
two or more lengths of core, divided at convenient inter- 
vals at the cross-bars. The principle of a lifting-plate for 
this class of work is shown in plan and side elevation at 
Fig. 165, and an end elevation of the same is shown at Fig. 
164. In all cases plates of this kind must be made pro- 
portionate to the weight to be borne upon them, and due 




Fig. 165. 

consideration must be given to such a distribution of the 
lifting-handles as will insure the least amount of spring 
or bend in the plate. 

All lifting-handles should be made as wide as is practi- 
cable with a straight turn, as shown at J, Fig. 164 ; this 
allows of an easy adjustment of the hook, and thus insures 
a straight lift on the core — something which cannot be as 
easily done when round eyes are used. 

In bedding down plates of this kind great care should 
be taken to have them as much above the surface to be 
lifted as will allow the irons to rest thereon, with only as 
much sand between as will permit of a solid bedding down 



240 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

of the iron. Too much care cannot be taken to insure a 
good job here, for it must be remembered that this is the 
foundation upon which all the weight of the core must 
rest, and no reliance can be placed on soft sand. 

Additional stiffness is imparted to cores of this descrip- 
tion by alternate layers of irons laid crosswise during the 
process of ramming, as seen at iT and L, Fig. 164: and all 
corners may be still further strengthened by an occasional 
gngger being set therein in a diagonal position. 

Fig. 166 is a plan view of cross-iron intended for use on 
such work ; all edges next the casting are chamfered, but 
that portion which rests on the plate is left flat, and some 



Fig. 166. 

increase of thickness made in order to meet the require- 
ments before mentioned. 

An entire change of procedure is made necessary when 
this job is contracted in width. If the opening betwixt 
the sides is considered too small for safety in green sand, 
then recourse must be had to a system of dry-sand cores; 
but a reference to Fig. 167 will show how a very small 
opening may with safety be utilized in the moulding of 
such jobs in green sand. 

Several methods present themselves for overcoming this 
difficulty, first of which we will notice the one as previ- 
ously explained, and made possible on such a reduced plate 
by setting the same with its upper surface on a level with 
the bottom bed, as seen at A, upon which surface are laid 
narrow strips of cast iron held together by internal webs, as 
seen at B in elevation and plan ; these, standing a little 
above the surface to be lifted, allow the core-iron C to 
rest solid thereon, making it impossible for any damage to 
ensue, no matter what weight the superincumbent core 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 241 

may be. The core is still further stiffened by the rods 
marked 1 to 7, respectively, in plan Fig. 167, and in end ele- 
vation at A, Fig. 1G8 ; these latter combine with the cross- 
irons and corner gaggers to make this core, narrow as it is, 
almost if not altogether as firm as the one previously de- 




Fig. 167. 

scribed. It will be seen at D, Fig. 167, how to make a 
wide handle on a single stein, and this particular item is 
worth remembering, as it will prove very useful in a life's 
experience among this class of work. I need not men- 
tion that the pattern is to be in this case as for the last ; 
consequently the pieces E and i^are entirely loose at the 



242 



TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



first move of the core, thereby obviating all danger of 
dragging down sand at the neck when the core is lifted 
out. 

Should it be thought desirable to lift away the ontsides 
of such a mould and leave the core standing, the iron strips 
B could rest on solid bearings provided for the purpose, 
and iron stakes could be driven down to answer the pur- 
pose of irons A, Fig. 168. In all other respects the opera- 



i _ 
A 




Fig. 168. 

tions would be similar to those previously explained, 
excepting that on account of pieces E and F having to 
be withdrawn after the sides were taken away, sufficient 
draught must be allowed to make the operation easy and 
safe, and the projections at G and H must necessarily be 
made loose to fall down after said pieces were drawn out. 

Two important items in side lifting-plates, or" draw- 
backs," merit some attention here, which, if once properly 
understood, makes the rest comparatively easy. First find 
out how much projecting sand is to be carried, and make the 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 243 

plate wide enough to allow the irons as much length back 
as will more than compensate for the weight in front, as 
seen at /and J, Fig. 167. The other item is to so place the 
lifting-handles K that a correct lift may be taken with 
the least amount of trouble. It will be seen that in this 
case the lifting-handle K is set a little forward to make 
up for the extra weight on front, and also that the handle 
itself is wide, as before explained ; and therefore any dis- 
crepancy can be easily rectified at the point of suspension. 

Ordinarily, a common drawback of this kind is rammed 
up and the hole entirely filled during the operation, to be 
subsequently dug around when the mould is to be separated; 
but if all of the cope be contained within the limits of the 
drawback, this extra labor may in a great many instances 
be saved by casting taper-holes at intervals along the back 
of the plate, as seen at L, into which stout bars can be 
driven, as seen at M, Fig. 167; these serve as supports for 
boards or plates, thus obviating the extra digging and ram- 
ming previously spoken of. 

A careful scrutiny of the right-hand side of Fig. 167 will 
make it apparent that all this may be accomplished in a 
more elegant manner than has hitherto been suggested, 
but it must be observed that what we have been saying in 
reference to side plates is intended to apply only when the 
nature of the order would not warrant us in adopting more 
systematic methods, at an enhanced cost. 

The rig shown consists of an inverted lifting-plate N, 
to which, by means of brackets 0, a back plate P is 
attached; the hinges R, upon which the whole side is to 
be turned, are placed at suitable intervals along the back 
plate, taking care to have them in close proximity to the 
brackets. The position of the cheek when turned up is 
indicated by the broken lines at T. 

This method is very simple, as will be noticed. The 
bottom hinges U are cast fast to the long bar V; this. 



244 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



when cast, is rammed firmly into the floor, with its upper 
edge parallel to the bottom bed. Additional rigidity is 
given by inserting a stout bearing-plate W, and wedging 
under the hinge, as seen. The upper hinges are to be 
bolted on the back plate after all has been firmly secured. 
The fixing 8 is in this case necessary to obtain the re- 
quired leverage for turning the side over on its hinges, 
and, as seen, is secured to the bracket by set-screws at the 
top. 




Fig. 169. 

I have shown at Fig. 163 how to rest long narrow cores, 
such as we have been discussing. The rig is simply a 
common wooden horse, with wedges B and C nailed fast 
thereon; by this means the core can be safely housed, and 
the finishing proceeded with as comfortable as if it were 
hanging in the crane. 

When the jobs are not too ponderous and it is desired to 
reach every part of such moulds, the method described at 
page 45 of "The Iron Founder "is most assuredly the 
best ; for by the method there explained everything is con- 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 245 

tained within the limits of the flask, and all the extra 
labor involved by bedding in the floor is entirely saved. 

I have shown at Fig. 169 a cheap makeshift for small jobs 
of this class: this whole outfit consists of a plate A, cast 
in one piece, on which is placed a wooden frame stiffened 
at the waist by iron bars B, C, and D, after the manner 





Fig. 171. 

as before explained at Fig. 167. This frame may be fitted 
with a wood cope, or an iron one can be used temporarily 
if the order will not allow of an entire irou rig being 
made. 

It sometimes happens that projections occur at certain 
places along the length of foundations, etc., which, if pro- 
vided for by the methods as previously described, would 
necessitate the use of some very unwieldy plates. Fig. 170 



246 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



illustrates how such a difficulty may be overcome by a very 
simple arrangement ; the figure includes plan showing the 
wide projection extending from the regular web B, B; it 
will be seen that the back of the lifting-plate C has not 
been made wider at that point, thus making the surface to 
be lifted at A very much wider than the lifting-plate 




itself, which, if not provided for, would inevitably collapse 
when the plate was lifted away. 

The staples E, seen in end section above, are cast in the 
lifting-plate in the position shown at D, D in the plan ; 
and, as shown in the figure, serve the purpose of wedging 
down the bar F, seen to rest on all the irons, and thus 
securing them firmly to the plate. By this means the 
irons become as one with the plate, and absolute safety is 
assured. 

Fig. 171 shows how the same results may be obtained by 
casting irons in the lifting-plate; but for general purposes 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR U HEENSAND WORK. 247 

the other mode is by far the best, especially when the rig 
must be used more than once. The crank end at A can 
be made very useful on special occasions, and materially 
helps to stiffen a critical corner that would otherwise be 
dangerous to risk in green sand. 

Fig. 173 represents a method for lifting out the inside 
core when the web extends round the end of the plate. A 
very neat and effective method of carrying such a core is 




Fig. 173. 

here shown : the cross-irons extend to within a short dis- 
tance of the end of Ihe plate, and the remaining portion is 
cared for by the crank-irons A, set in at right angles to, 
and resting firmly on the cross-irons. 

The conditions on such a job are very much changed 
when the inner web is widened as shown at Fig. 173. This 
emergency is well met by introducing a grate, or ' grid,' 
cast for the purpose, which, as in all the other cases men- 
tioned, must have a sure rest on the plate, to which it 
must be firmly secured by bolts at the holes indicated. 
When from any cause whatever the plate does not stand 
high enough to rest the grid upon, then recourse must be 



248 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

had to packing, as in all cases of tin's nature we must have 
iron and iron: a strict adherence to this rule will save many 
a blunder. 

Fig. 174 shows how to carry awa- a deep overhanging side 
in green sand, and is simply the application of the principle 
set forth at Fig. 170. The section of lifting-plate A, with 




Fig. 174. 

handle for lifting B, also staple C for securing, is shown, 
on which studs D for the support of bars E are resting. 
On these bars the first row of irons F are seen in position. 
The same process at the two upper tiers brings us to the 
top row of irons (J, on which the bar 1 is placed and 
securely anchored, the bolts J having been previously set 
in position before the ramming commenced. The value of 
this kind of lifting-handle is again forcibly demonstrated 



SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN SAND WORK. 249 

in this instance, as by changing the angle a little almost 
every inequality of weight may be provided for. 

If a side must be carried away, exposing a web or pro- 
jection of more than ordinary dimensions, it is just as well 
to make a flask drawback to cover the whole thing; this 
will serve the double purpose of fitting the lower surface 
and carrying away the side. Extra precautions must in 




Fig. 175. 



this case be taken to provide suitable bearings at each 
corner of the flask; these must rest on anchor-plates set 
down solid below the mould. Fig. 175 is the representation 
of just such a mould as would require the arrangement we 
have been describing. At A we have the surface level with 
the floor, whilst the surface B, at right angles to A, ex- 
tends to another similar surface directly under the flask 
C. With such an arrangement as is here illustrated, such 
work, difficult as it may seem, becomes comparatively 
simple. 



250 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING UNDER 
DIFFICULTIES; 

OR, BIG CASTINGS IN LITTLE FOUNDRIES. 

To my certain knowledge there are no men, as a class, 
more ambitions of distinction in their profession than 
foundry proprietors. Especially may this be said of such 
founders as have not the room space or power in their 
foundries necessary for the safe handling of heavy castings 
difficult to mould, owing to their great size and complexity 
of design. 

Many and ingenious are the efforts put forth to accom- 
plish work that at first sight strikes them as being beyond 
their ability to make; but on further reflection, and urged 
by the principle above spoken of, they have ultimately 
decided to make the effort, cost what it might. 

Moulders who have done all their moulding in shops 
provided with every convenience for different kinds of work, 
and whose every need and requirement lias been anticipated 
by one or more heads that have been trained scientifically 
as well as practically to a thorough knowledge of founding 
in all its multitudinous branches, know little or nothing of 
the skill and perseverance practised in the small and less- 
favored shops to mould castings which to them would be a 
comparatively easy task. 

When a graduate from one of the paragon foundries 
undertakes to mould similar work in the latter-mentioned 
places, particularly if it should happen to be one of the 
meanest, he immediately discovers the truth of the above, 
and mentally resolves to keep his faculties on the alert; 
otherwise his deficiencies as a thorough moulder will be at 
once detected. His discovery of the non-existence of con- 



HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 251 

veniences and tools hitherto looked upon by him as in- 
dispensable for making such work almost unmans him; 
but when, upon hinting the advisability of procuring these 
costly adjuncts, he observes the grim, far-away look on the 
countenances of his new shopmates, he not unfrequently 
retires from his new field of operations a thoroughly dis- 
heartened man. This, of course, is decidedly wrong; a 
moment's reflection should convince him that the cause of 
his present embarrassment is the natural result of his past 
environments, which latter, aided by his present oppor- 
tunities, would, if taken advantage of, insure for him a 
bright and useful future. 

To transport a mould or casting weighing 20 tons, in a 
foundry more than adequately equipped with 50-ton power 
cranes of the latest improved patterns, is the simplest 
matter imaginable. How such moulds must be divided up, 
and what devices must be planned to move the same weight 
where the capacity of the cranes do not exceed from 7| to 
10 tons, is best known to many of the ambitious proprietors 
of small foundries, who are every day demonstrating possi- 
bilities beyond even what we are now considering. 

I am aware that the consideration of the following sub- 
ject will be provocative of a smile among the luminaries 
whose effulgent light is dispensed only in the paragon shops 
previously spoken of; but let such be reminded that we are 
attempting the accomplishment of this job in a small 
foundry, where the means are far below its legitimate 
requirements. 

Let it be required to mould a plain hydraulic cylinder 
2' 10" outside diameter, 1' 2' inside diameter, and 14' 0" 
long, including 2' 0" for head, at a foundry where every 
facility exists for the immediate execution of such an 
order. Almost certainly there will be a 'plug' pattern 
ready at hand, requiring but a very slight alteration to 
make it suitable for the job; flasks are sure to be found in 



252 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

sufficient numbers to make up the required length; and in 
all probability a core-barrel, with or without tripod, will 
be found also, — thus making a full rig wherewith to com- 
mence the moulding of this casting on the instant of the 
order's reception. 

Owing to the skill and foresight exercised in the man- 
agement of such an establishment, the place assigned for 
the ramming of this class of work is separate from and in- 
dependent of the regular run of crane work, and is also in 
direct communication, by rail or crane, with the oven; 
neither is there any interference with such regular work 
by the constant monopoly of the crane attendant upon the 
ramming up of such jobs, owing to the fact that this con- 
tingency has been anticipated and a separate crane provided 
for the purpose. 

The exercise of due alacrity on the part of the core- 
maker produces core and mould simultaneously at this 
place in an incredibly short space of time, and as there is 
power sufficient to lift all the mould together if need be, 
that particular item requires no consideration whatever. 
In all probability there will be from 25 to 40 feet clear 
above, in which case the length of the core gives no con- 
cern whatever, being simply hitched on and suspended 
with tripod attached, lowered into the mould, centred, 
and secured. Subsequent operations connected with cast- 
ing and shipping are, owing to such excellent means, very 
light events, and merit no notice here. 

How different is all this when we undertake to mould 
this cylinder in a shop 50 feet square, having cranes capable 
of lifting only 10 tons, with a height from floor to crane- 
hook of L2£ feet, and without either pattern, flask, or core- 
barrel wherewith to make the job. Under circumstances 
of this nature we must either incur the expense of new 
patterns and flasks, or go back to the time- honored practice 



HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 253 

of making it in loam.' The latter method is what we pro- 
pose to explain as we proceed. 

In the first place, this casting will weigh about 16 J tons; 
this, of course, necessitates the division of the metal, for 
pouring with, into at least two portions, each of which 
must be less than 10 tons, the latter weight being the limit 
of the crane's capacity. 

Next, there must be such a separation of the copes 
forming the outride of the mould as will permit the core 
to be inserted at about midway of its length, the remaining 
portion to be lowered over the core subsequently. Another 
important item in the general arrangement is to place the 
lower part of the mould into the pit at such depth as will 
allow the core when suspended to swing clear of it, and as 
the core exclusive of lifting-tackle is about 14' 6" long, it 
must of necessity travel in a trench dug in the floor from 
the point where it has been suspended to the pit. The 
labor of digging this trench will naturally suggest the 
keeping of these two points as near together as is consistent 
with safety. 

As before stated, when there is unlimited height, the 
core, with its necessary appendage, can be lowered down 
into its place after the outside has been all set; this allows 
the core to swing from the tripod clear of the mould during 
the operations of closing; but in this instance the core, 
owing to the altered circumstances, must first find a resting- 
place at the bottom of the mould, until the remaining part 
of the mould has been closed over, after which the tripod 
can be attached and the core freed from its temporary 
anchorage. 

For the benefit of moulders whose experience has not 
embraced this particular phase of the trade, I shall, by the 
aid of the accompanying illustrations, endeavor to make 
plain how best to mould such a job in loam, where the con- 
ditions for doing so are about equal to those related above 



254 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Fig. 176. 



HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 255 

A glance at Fig. 170 will give a good general idea of the 
whole apparatus required for constructing the mould; the 
other figures will be found useful, and aid the mind in 
arriving at an accurate knowledge of its numerous details. 

We will first consider the mould proper, which consists 
of lower section A, that is seen to be built upon a stout 
foundation-plate B, of such form and dimensions as will 
permit a double course of bricks beyond a suitable thick- 
ness of loam. Provision is also made for building in a 
system of running-gates down opposite sides of the mould. 
The form of this foundation-plate, as well as all cope and 
binding rings used on the job, ma}' be seen at A, Fig. 177, 
that being a plan view of the top of the mould, exposing 
top binding-plate, tripod, and one runner-basin, the latter 
being purposely drawn out of place in order that a sectional 
elevation of the same with its connections lower down 
could be obtained, as seen. 

How much of the mould is contained in this lower 
section will be seen at a glance by referring to B, Fig. 177; 
the bottom connection of one of the running-gates spoken 
of is shown at C; the opposite one (not shown here) must 
be taken for granted. A tapered iron block 4" square on 
its upper surface is to be built in, as seen at D, for reasons 
that will be made clear as we proceed. The two upper 
sections of cope may be built separately, closed together 
when green, finished, marked with guides for final closing, 
and then blackened and dried separately. 

To meet all the conditions previously laid down, it is 
necessary to make an equal division of the copes above the 
bottom section; this makes them about 6' 3'' each in 
length, and in order to give the requisite strength to the 
structure it is important that each cope be bound together 
as seen, the principle of binding being to cast four addi- 
tional lugs, with staples on each cope-ring, as shown at 
C, C, Fig. 1 7G. By this means the upper binding-ring can be 



256 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 








Fiq. 177. 



HYDRA ULIC CYLINDER-MO ULDING. 



257 



drawn down firmly, and thus make of the whole courses 
of brick one unyielding fabric. 

The upper cope is a fac-simile of the one described, 
excepting that, instead of placing the binding-ring one 
course of bricks below the joint, as in the lower, it is in 
the higher placed on the top course of bricks, with its 
smooth side uppermost; this gives a better surface for the 
tripod E to rest upon. 

The core-barrel, 10" diameter outside and 1" thick, in 
this case need not be over elaborate, nor possess any 
element of fitting beyond the capacity of the ordinary 




Fig. 178. 

foundry blacksmith; a careful examination of Fig. 177 will 
explain all its parts, internal and external. Three lugs, 
with holes for bolts, are to be cast on 8" from the top, as 
shown in all the figures; and midway betwixt these lugs 
and the top a hole 2£" diameter must be cast on opposite 
sides, through which a 2" steel bolt-pin can be inserted for 
the purpose of suspending the core for closing, as seen at 
Figs. 178 and 180. 

The gudgeon A, Fig 178, 2V' diameter, is purposely pro- 
vided with an eye for lifting by, but must be screwed out 
when the core has been suspended, as seen at Fig. 180, and 
replaced with the one shown at E, Fig. 177 The object of 
the latter plug is twofold: at first it is screwed exactly 
even with the bottom of the core, and forms a sure rest, 
independent of the loam on the barrel, the full value of 



258 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

which arrangement will be apparent when the test of its 
merits are exhibited further on. 

At FF, Fig. 177, are shown plan and projected elevation of 
the tripod to be used on this occasion for the final suspen- 
sion of the core. As seen, it consists of three legs or stands, 
connected by a stout central ring which encircles the core- 
barrel; three holes, corresponding to the position of the 
holes in the lugs, are cast in the central ring for bolts G to 
pass through. The height of these lugs on the barrel 
determines the depth of the tripod, and it is always ad- 
vantageous to allow for a steel bearing about 1" thick to 
rest upon the top ring for the screws H to work upon. 

Before commencing to close this mould, let me draw 
attention to the cross or cradle, shown at Fig. 170, and 
explain its use. It is composed of two half-circular boards 
2" thick, halved in the centre and strengthened by four 
corner-pieces, as seen. The outer circle at J" corresponds 
to the curve at the bottom of the mould, whilst the curve at 
K answers to that of the core. An iron pin L, 2£" di- 
ameter, is let into and extends through the cross; this pin, 
as seen again at M, Fig. 177, stands flush at both ends, the 
lower end resting upon the stud or block D, whilst the 
upper forms an immovable support for the core, the whole 
weight of which is carried by the screwed plug E, previ- 
ously spoken of. 

This cross, as will be plainly seen at N, Fig. 177, forms 
a cradle, which fits the mould exactly and gives a central 
guide for the core, the bearing for which is, by this con- 
trivance, a direct connection of the barrel with the founda- 
tion-plate irrespective and independent of either the mould 
or core. 

AVhen this cradle has been set into the bottom section of 
the mould, lift on the lower piece of cope and proceed to 
swing the core. As stated at the outset, this can only be 
done by lowering the bottom end as much into the floor as 



HYDRA ULIC C TLINDER-MO ULDING. 



259 



is lacking in height of crane for effecting a clear swing. 
Fig. 178 shows the cove resting, at each end, in a trench 
dug for this purpose; and Fig. 180 is a rough representa- 
tion of the core A, swinging in the crane and issuing from 
the trench B, over the mould in pit C. 

In this case the trench would require to be about 3 feet 
deep; the lower cope standing at that distance below the 
floor-line, as shown, would bring the top of the mould, when 
all is closed, about 3' 6" above. 

When the core has been lowered into the guide below 





Fig. !79. 



Fig. 180. 



and centred by packings which must be firmly wedged at 
three or four places round, take care that each packing is 
placed opposite the binding-ring, as shown at F, F, Fig. 180. 
It will here be seen why we make these copes so strong: the 
binding-ring serves the double duty of keeping the mould 
in good shape and acting as a firm buttress against which 
to steady the core until the upper cope has been placed, 
when, if the core is found to be correct at that point also, 
the work may be continued; but if it should be found 
necessary to move the core over a little at the top, then 
loosen the lower braces and proceed to pack above as be- 



260 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

fore, using the inner edge of the top binding-ring as a 
buttress. 

The tripod may now be lowered over the barrel and 
made fast thereto, after which bring the set-screws H, Fig. 
177, firmly down on the steel packings until the tripod 
bears the whole weight of the core. If this is done care- 
fully there will be no further centring to be done. 

The whole mould, exclusive of the bottom section, is to 
be now lifted in order to take out the cradle N, and make 
good the bottom of the core; but before proceeding to do 
the latter, let the plug E, Fig. 177, be screwed £" farther 
in: this will permit a covering of loam at that part, and 
prevent damage from the molten iron. 

By placing a runner-basin 0, Fig. 177, at each of the 
down-pouring gates P and R, we obtain a correct plan 
view of the top of such a mould when the outside has been 
rammed level with the top, as seen at SS, which point, as 
before stated, stands about 3' 10" above the floor-line. 

For obvious reasons, I have omitted showing the cross 
and slings used for binding purposes; but it is well to say 
that there must be no bungling here, as there is an upward 
pressure under this core of about 3^ tons. Use a good cross, 
and let the packings come directly over the ends of each 
wing of the tripod. 

Granted that the conditions for melting iron in this shop 
are about equal with the majority of our small foundries, 
and remembering the weight of this casting, we cannot 
conscientiously withhold our meed of praise for all such 
founders as can successfully produce such work creditably 
under circumstances so adverse. 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 261 



THE FOUNDING OF STATUES IN IRON AND 
BRONZE. 

EXPLAINING THE * CIRE PERDUE' AND OTHER PROCESSES; 
WITH A REVIEW OF THE ART AS PRACTISED BY THE 
ANCIENTS, AND UP TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

After a careful review of the subject of founding in its 
relation to sculpture and the fine arts, as ably presented by 
eminent authorities, past and present, the writer ventures 
in this article to give a brief outline of its history up to the 
present; with such technical instructions as will at least 
leave an intelligent knowledge of the several modes of 
producing in metals a true representation of the original 
inspirations of the sculptor. 

When stone, bone, and horn were the only materials 
upon which mankind spent its efforts upon such articles of 
common use as they then needed, it might be then called 
the stone age. The bronze age did not by any means come 
into existence at once, but by a very slow process of devel- 
opment. The native copper they had with them for the 
fashioning of articles by beating, etc.; but no doubt a grad- 
ual application of fire for melting was followed by some sort 
of rude moulding for the purpose of obtaining casts from 
different objects, which ultimately brought about the art 
of mixing metals, copper and tin alloy, forming bronze, 
being the chief amongst them during this age. It was not 
until metallurgy was a well-established science that iron 
came into general use, and that assuredly accounts for the 
rapidity with which it at once asserted its supremacy for 
almost all uses in science and art. 

There is no doubt that the arts of man in times past 
have been considerably influenced by local surroundings. 



'2&2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Pure native copper in great abundance is found in North 
America, and iron seems to have been worked by some por- 
tions of the Africans, owing to a peculiarity of its nature, 
from the earliest ages. No knowledge of the use of metals 
was shown by the natives of Australia, New Zealand, or the 
northern portion of the continent of America when they 
were first discovered. In the southern continent, however, 
strange to say, they were not ignorant of the art of working 
metals when they were first discovered by the Spaniards in 
the sixteenth century. It was found that the Peruvians 
and Mexicans could work with considerable skill in gold 
and copper, but had not as yet found out anything about 
iron. 

It would appear that the change from the bronze to 
the iron age took place in Greece within the time included 
in the most learned parts of its history, while the Romans, 
it is certain, had possessed a knowledge of treating iron ore 
from the earliest days of their existence as a nation. Iron 
was known to the Celtic and German tribes when the south- 
ern races first went among them for the purpose of trading, 
etc.: and some parts of northern Europe to this day main- 
tain a supremacy in the manufacture of iron not as yet 
attained by their almost immediate neighbors. The art of 
making steel was first acquired by the Romans. 

The metal which seems to have found most favor in 
Europe during the earliest ages was gold: this may have 
been on account of its being found in many parts in such 
condition as admitted of easy working by beating, etc., into 
articles of adornment for the person, as well as other deco- 
rative uses, its beautiful and shining quality, no doubt, 
being its chief attraction. We find that tin was from the 
earliest times an article of commerce and trade in the south 
of England; and when we consider the fact that copper 
also was mined in large quantities in close proximity to the 
tin mines, we may, without any stretching of the imagina- 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 263 

tion, conclude just how these two metals were ultimately 
combined to form the wonderful alloy which we call bronze, 
and which, no doubt, was the beginning of the change that 
determined the duration of the stone age. The first pro- 
cesses were undoubtedly the beating and shaping of native 
malleable copper, followed by the melting of the metal and 
running into moulds; and finally the discovery that by the 
same process of smelting the ores could be made to yield 
whatever copper they contained, which, being mixed with 
other metals in suitable proportions, resulted in the ability 
to produce whatever kind of metal the needs and require- 
ments of the early workers in metals called for. 

When the art of smelting iron had at length become 
generally known, and arms, as well as the numerous other 
articles for which it was better adapted than bronze, had 
been successfully made, fully demonstrating its superiority 
over the latter metal for such purposes, the iron age may be 
said to have arrived. 

It will be evident to all that there must have been con- 
siderable attention given to the subject of metallurgy in 
these early ages before they could have successfully accom- 
plished the manufacture of wrought-iron goods, as above 
described; and it is almost certain that the Britons, isolated 
though they were at that time, knew how to manipulate the 
metals before Julius Caesar landed with his armies in that 
country: still, a great impetus may have been given to the 
business by that event. 

Chius seems to have been honored by the establishment 
of a school of sculpture in marble as far back as GGO B.C., 
and it was in this place that Glaucns is supposed to have 
introduced the art of welding iron, 692 B.C. Mention is also 
made by several authorities of the beautiful metal utensils 
which were produced at this time, as the enormous caldron 
with projecting griffins' heads, and a support formed of 
kneeling figures seven ells in height (Herodotus, IV. 152). 



264 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Pa»usanias (in. 17, 6) describes, as the oldest example of 
sculpture in bronze which he had seen, a statue of Jupiter 
at Sparta - , the work of Clearchus of Rhegium, who was by 
some called a scholar of Daedalus. It was made of plates 
of bronze beaten out to the form of the figure, and then 
secured together by fine nails, from which it would seem 
that the arts of casting, or even of soldering, were then not 
known. 

Theodorus of Samos is supposed by some to have been 
the inventor of casting in bronze, but Ulrichs argues that 
there must have been two artists by that name, because the 
one who invented bronze casting must have lived before 576 
B.C., previous to which date this art may be inferred to have 
been known from the remarks of Herodotus (v. 82) that 
the Epidaurians were ordered by an oracle to obtain figures 
of Damia and Auxesia. 

The rival schools of marble sculpture, and the first of 
which we have any distinct record, are Chins, and Magnesia 
on the Meander. Bathycles was the leader of the latter 
school, and Pausanias tells us that he was the author of the 
figures and reliefs on the colossal throne of Appolo at 
Amyclae. As to the date of these schools he does not de- 
cide, but supposes about 546 B.C. The schools of Argus and 
iEgina appeared about 508 and 452 B.C., and bronze would 
seem to have been the material worked with by the former 
school, whose head was Ageladus, the tutor of Myron, 
Polycletus, and Phidias. The school of iEgina obtained a 
great reputation for the quality of the bronze used, and 
their design and workmanship were greatly esteemed. 

Onates, whose works consisted of immense groups, as well 
as other statues of gods and heroes (single), most of which 
were produced in bronze, was a graduate of the latter school. 
Anaxagoras, who executed the bronze statue of Zeus, 15 feet 
high, for Olympia, to celebrate the battle of Platea, was the 
immediate successor of Onates. 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 265 

The school of Magna Grecia is worthily represented hy 
Pythagoras, whose works were all executed in bronze. The 
subjects of his choice were invariably male figures, on which 
he worked with marvellous skill, in order to bring out a pro- 
nounced representation of muscular attitude as expressed 
under extreme bodily or mental strain. His statue of 
Philoctetes at Syracuse was executed in order to show forth 
the expression of pain, and it is said that his success was 
such as to move spectators when viewing it. 

The Athenian Phidias is supposed to have been born 
about 500 B.C. With his advent a new order of things pre- 
vailed, as he possessed a knowledge of the art coupled with 
technical skill hitherto unapproached, and his influence 
spread far and wide. Originally a painter, he subsequently 
turned the whole force of his genius to sculpture, producing, 
among other great works, the colossal statue of Athene the 
Promachos, which, according to Pausanias, was ordered by 
the Athenians, and paid for out of the Persian booty. 
When finished, it was erected on the Acropolis, the top of 
the spear in her hand and the crest of her helmet being 
visible at sea from Cape Sunium. 

Scopas of Parus, 380 B.C., settled in Athens. He was a 
great bronze sculptor, especially in the portrayal of feeling, 
which he infused into all his figures, whether human or 
divine. He maintained his reputation for unapproachable 
work about thirty years. 

Lysippus of Sicyon also appeared about this time. He 
had been formerly employed by the Corinthian sculptor 
Euphranor, as one of his workmen in bronze; but disdain- 
ing the lower walks of his profession, he studied hard, and 
was ultimately rewarded by being esteemed by all as a 
sculptor of genius. A remarkable feature in this man's 
career was the immense number of works which passed 
through his hands, which are supposed to amount to the 
enormous figure of about 1500 groups and statues, two of 



266 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

which may be considered massive productions, being the 
statue of Jupiter at Tarentum, GO feet high, and the 
statue of Hercules at the same place. 

Chares, the founder of the school of sculpture at Khodes, 
is preeminently noted for having produced the bronze 
statue of Helius at Ehodes — an immense piece of work, 
measuring 105 feet in height. This colossal figure remained 
standing about sixty years, when it was destroyed by an 
earthquake. 

The plastic arts were in a degraded condition about the 
fourth century, coarse in workmanship as well as wanting in 
the higher principles of design. The lack of expression in 
works of art at that time shows that at the most it was but 
imitative of the past. The sixth century produced an 
entirely new class of sculpture for decorative purposes. 
This was under the influence of Justinian, who favored the 
Byzantine style, which latter can only be considered a high- 
class order of metal-work suitable for decorative purposes, 
and all such as were used for decorating the church being 
their highest aim to produce. No doubt this lapsing into 
working of precious metals resulted from the objections 
raised by the Church at that period against all efforts at 
modelling figures which might captivate the senses. 

The whole Christian world, was influenced by the art of 
Byzantium up to the twelfth century; and as they had 
become the greatest workmen in the precious metals at 
that time, the artists from all over Europe flocked to that 
city, making it the centre as well as the school of art- 
work. 

The Saxon period found the English with but very few 
attempts even of stone buildings, much less sculpture, and 
the arts at that time were mainly represented in some few 
specimens in gold, silver, and copper. True there was some 
rude sculpture attempted during the Norman period, but 
nothing of importance in this line is noticed until after the 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 267 

thirteenth century, when we find that considerable encour- 
agement was given to art-work by Henry III. The two 
bronze figures in Westminster Abbey, modelled and c;ist by 
William Torell of London, about the year 1300, will, how- 
ever, bear comparison with some of the best works of that 
day. These castings are considered perfect as specimens 
of the cire-perdue process, one representing the crowned 
head of Henry III., and the other that of the head of 
Eleanor. William Ansten of London was the artist who 
modelled and cast the effigy of Richard Beauchamp, 1439, 
and no work of the fifteenth century has received greater 
praise. Hubert Le Sceur, a French sculptor, who died 
about 1G70, modelled and cast the bronze equestrian statue 
of Charles I. at Charing Cross, supposed to be a fine speci- 
men of art- work. 

English sculpture during the eighteenth century was 
mostly in the hands of Flemish and other artists, Rysbrack 
being one of the chief amongst them. The more modern 
public statues of London are, as a rule, somewhat tame and 
uninteresting, with one brilliant exception, which is the 
Wellington monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, the almost 
life-work of Alfred Stevens (1817-1875). The monument 
consists of a sarcophagus supporting a recumbent bronze 
effigy of the Duke. At each end is a large bronze group, 
one representing truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth 
of falsehood, and the other, valor trampling cowardice 
under foot. 

There is no doubt of Stevens' work being made more 
valuable apparently from the fact that there were so few 
artists of his day who might be considered good. The 
Athlete struggling with a Python, by Sir Frederick Leigh- 
ton, is elegant, both in conception and design, but is marred 
irreparably by the methods adopted for casting — so common 
now in England, casting in sand being preferred to the 
nicer method of the cire-perdue or waste-wax process. 



268 THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

This latter process consists of modelling the statue in 
wax, upon a previously prepared core, around which the 
cope is formed, and the whole thoroughly burned. The 
wax escapes during the firing, and the space is filled with 
metal. The original model is, of course, lost. 

The twelfth and thirteenth centuries found the sculpture 
of France the finest in the world, but it declined again 
towards the end of the fifteen tn century. Jean Goujon (d. 
1572) was the ablest French sculptor of his time; he com- 
bined great technical skill with refinement in modelling. 
With the exception of the two Coustons, who were remark- 
able mainly for their technical skill, no sculptor of merit 
appeared in France during the seventeenth century; but a 
century later Jean Antoine Houdon (1740-1828), a sculptor 
of most exceptional power, produced the standing colossal 
statue of St. Bruno at Rome, and other statuary of re- 
markable merit. The existing French schools of sculpture 
are esteemed as the most important in the world ; technical 
skill, combined with an intimate knowledge of the human 
form, are possessed by many living sculptors to a degree 
never before attained. 

Germany continued under the influence of Byzantium 
until the twelfth century, which fact the bronze pillar 
reliefs by Bernward at that time plainly show. The thir- 
teenth century found this country far behind France in 
artistic progress; but some fine examples of fourteenth- 
century sculpture are to be found in Nuremberg, also at 
Prague, where the equestrian bronze group of St. George 
and Dragon are to be seen in the market-place. For three 
generations, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
the family of Vischer were among the ablest sculptors in 
bronze, and few bronze sculptors have ever equalled Peter 
Vischer in technique. His chief early work was the tomb 
of Archbishop Ernest in Magdeburg Cathedial (1495). 
The finest series of bronze statues of the first half of the 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 269 

sixteenth century, viz., twenty-eight colossal figures round 
the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian, are to be seen at 
Innsbruck. Andreas Schliiter of Hamburg (b. about 
1662) produced the colossal statue of Frederick III. which 
stands on the bridge at Berlin. 

It was about the fourteenth century that Florence and 
the neighboring cities became the chief centres of Italian 
sculpture, till in the fifteenth century Florence had become 
the chief art city in the world. 

No grander specimens of bronze statuary are to be found 
than the equestrian Gattamelata statue at Padua, done by 
Donatello, and that of Colleoni at Venice, the work of Ver- 
rochio and Leopardi. It was about this time that Michael 
Angelo, the greatest master of them all, made his appear- 
ance, and eclipsed all others by the grandeur of his noble 
work. The sixteenth century saw a decline in Italian 
sculpture, although John of Douay (1524-1608) .produced 
his bronze statue of Mercury flying upwards, now in the 
Uffizi. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of 
Cosimo de Medici at Florence. Beuvenuto Cellini (1500- 
1569) produced the colossal bronze Perseus at Florence. 

The description of the great gold lions of Solomon's 
throne, and the laver of cast bronze, supported on cast 
figures of oxen, shows that the artificers of that time had 
overcome the difficulties of metal working and founding 
on a large scale; and Herodotus tells of the enormous 
number of colossal statues for which Babylon and Nineveh 
were so famed. The late excavations in the Tigris and 
Euphrates valleys, and the recent discovery of some bronze 
statuettes, shown by inscriptions on them to be not later 
than 2200 B.C., proves the early development of this branch 
of art among the Assyrians. 

Early Greek sculptors seem to have executed nearly all 
their sculpture in metal, preferably to marble; and how 
much superior in technique theirs was to some of our mod- 



270 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

ern works is very clearly demonstrated by the great bronze 
lions of the Nelson Monument, Loudon, which show in 
a marked manner how much inferior is the coarse sand 
casting, now prevalent in England and elsewhere, to the 
more delicate cire-perchie process. 

The Japanese are great masters in all manipulations of 
metals and amalgams, and possess secret processes unknown 
to workmen elsewhere, showing a great mastery of their 
material in both designing and moulding. 

Casting is, in all probability, the oldest method of metal- 
work, and this has passed through three stages: the first, 
solid castings, such as were made in ancient times by form- 
ing moulds in clay, stone, or sand, and pouring in the fluid 
metal until the hollow was full. The next stage, according 
to examples now in the British Museum, was to introduce 
an iron core, in order to save the bronze or even more , 
valuable metal. The latter method most certainly had its 
disadvantages, as the casting must necessarily split on such 
a rigid core. The third stage, which appears with some 
modifications to be the method now adopted, was the em- 
ployment of a clay or sand core, round which the figure 
was cast as thin as possible to save metal. This process 
was very successfully practised by the Greeks and Romans; 
and whilst their exact methods are not certainly known, 
it is more than probable that they were acquainted with the 
c ire-perdue process, which was so largely practised at a 
later day by the great European artists in bronze, and still 
followed to this day. 

In times past the moulding as well as the casting of a 
statue was invariably done by the sculptor, whereas at the 
present time, by the use of a clay model or a plaster cast 
of the same, the business of sculptor and moulder have 
become distinct specialties. 

One great objection to the very elegant process of cire 
perdue is that the work of the sculptor must be repeated 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 271 

as often as failure to reproduce his efforts occurs in the 
foundry; consequently the whole system of statue moulding 
has been undergoing a complete change of late in order to 
keep the model first supplied by the sculptor intact, and 
always ready for a repetition of the work should circum- 
stances demand it. 

Models, in clay or plaster, of large statues are now sup- 
plied by the sculptor, from which a correct impression in 
plaster is at once obtained by the founder. Such a model 
of an antique bronze of the Townley Venus is shown at 
Fig. 181, a plaster impression of which is obtained by first 
marking off two or more main divisions of the model 
and noting the parts which, owing to the peculiar depres- 
sions on the surface, would fail to separate from the model 
without fracturing the part ; these found, a separate 
piece of mould is formed in plaster at such places, the 
outer surfaces of which will leave their impression in the 
outer copes. The copes are formed by running plaster 
over the model, the several divisions of which are obtained 
by constructing a wooden or clay boundary at the points 
where it has been determined to separate them, and are 
held firmly together by skeleton frames constructed with 
iron bars which are laid in the plaster during the process 
of covering the model. After these divisions have been 
made in this manner, one by one, and have become suffi- 
ciently set or hardened, they are carefully lifted away, set 
down on their backs, and the false pieces or cores with- 
drawn from the model and set in their respective seatings 
in the copes. A correct impression of the model, no 
matter how intricate its form, is thus obtained, over which, 
after well oiling, the requisite thickness is laid on in wax 
by repeated coats applied with a brush. The mould being 
now ready for forming the core within, a suitable core-iron 
is formed by attaching cross-bars to one or more main cen- 
tral rods, such cross-bars reaching into the remote parts of 



272 THE IROJS-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 




Antique Bronze of the Townley Venus. 
Fig. 181. 



STATUES IN IEON AND BRONZE. 



273 




274 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the core as seen at Fig. 182; this skeleton core-iron is then 
placed in position inside the prepared mould, and, after 
making the necessary preparations, by means of pipes, AA, 
for conveying away the gases from all remote parts, the 
composition or cement is poured therein from the highest 
part of the mould. The cement commonly used for cores 
in bronze castings is composed of two parts of finely 
ground fire-bricks to one part plaster of Paris, mixed with 
water to the consistency of cream. 

The setting or hardening of cores formed from these 
materials takes place very soon, so that the plaster copes 
may bo taken away almost immediately. By exercising 
care, this may be done without much, if any, damage to 
the surface of the newly -formed wax model. The core, 
surrounded with its wax fac-simile cf the original model, 
i.s now stood on a suitably provided base, and only needs 
the requisite anchors for keeping it in position when the 
wax has been melted out, which emergency is met by in- 
serting, at suitable places, rods of bronze through the core, 
as seen at BB, Fig. 182, the ends of which standing out some 
distance from the figure, are made secure by being cemented 
firmly into the cope, when the latter is duly formed. 

The next process is to connect the wax of the figure with 
a number of holes provided at the base, as shown at CO, 
by means of outlets composed of the same material ; also, 
to attach wax-running gates, DD, at such places and in 
such number and size as will insure a safe and clean pour. 
The gases generated inside the mould when it is cast are 
led away at the top by means of vents direct, or they may 
be formed in the same manner as the gates in wax. 

After inlets, outlets, and vents have been all secured to 
their respective places on the figure, the whole surface is 
painted over with a fine composition of some kind; some 
use fine brick-dust mixed to a consistency with thin glue 
water, whilst others prefer the white of egg, or molasses, 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 275 

with the brick-dust, according to the nature of the work. 
When about one quarter inch of this composition has been 
laid over the surface and become moderately hard, the 
common or ordinary loam, with a plentiful admixture of 
horse manure or cow hair, may be applied, and a backing 
of bricks built round, after the usual manner. It is usual, 
in some cases, to surround the bricks with iron curbs at 
once, so that all danger from the jarring incident to pit 
ramming may be avoided. 

Whatever method of firing be adopted, it is necessary 
that these moulds, inside and outside, be thoroughly dried. 

As will be readily seen, the wax thickness, followed by 
gates and vents, will begin to flow out at the lower aper- 
tures, CO, Fig. 182, as soon as the heat begins to take effect, 
and a constant flow will continue until every portion of 
wax will have run out, leaving the core and cope held in 
their true relative positions by the bronze rods BB, previ- 
ously spoken of. 

When the whole lias been thoroughly dried, it only re- 
mains to plug the lower apertures CO, through which the 
wax has escaped, form the runn</r-basin, and all is ready 
for running in the metal. 

The wax used for the above purpose is composed of one 
part each of tallow, turpentine, and pitch to ten parts of 
wax. The fine surface of these moulds absorbs more or 
less of the carbon of these ingredients, and by this means 
is rendered sufficiently refractory to resist the burning 
quality of the molten bronze, and it is to this happy com- 
bination that the beautiful results of the cire-perdue pro- 
cess is owing. 

Sometimes these main copes, as provided by the method 
explained above, are at once filled with the core composi- 
tion, after the skeleton core-iron has been placed therein, 
the copes being then taken away and the thickness pared 
off by the moulder, after which they are again adjusted 



276 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

round the core, and the space run full of wax. The pro- 
cess is to be then continued, as before explained. 

The moulding of statuary in cast iron is almost as exclu- 
sive a business as that in bronze. The various manipula- 
tions must necessarily be more difficult, because the mate- 
rials used for constructing the moulds being more open, are 
proportionately less tough, and, consequently, greater in- 
genuity is demanded to construct the moulds so that they 
will endure safely the handling to which they are subjected. 

Cast iron in a molten condition, being hotter than bronze, 
remains fluid longer; this, added to the fact that when 
the former metal is used the castings must be much thicker 
than the ones in bronze, makes it much more difficult to 
obtain a smooth surface, because as long as the metal is in 
a fluid state, and aided by the pressure behind, it is melt- 
ing the non-refractory particles of sand on the surface, 
and forcing its way into the coarser materials of which the 
mould is made. To obviate this as much as possible is one 
of the chief processes in the production of cast-iron statu- 
ary, and no expense is spared to obtain the most refrac- 
tory facings known. 

For cast-iron statuary the sculptor must first secure the 
services of a competent moulder, who proceeds to form the 
core according as he is directed. Of course the moulder 
must follow the instructions of the sculptor in everything 
pertaining to the contour of the core, but he must use his 
own judgment in arranging all the supports, anchors, vents, 
etc., according to the nature of the work before him. 
After the core has been duly formed by the moulder the 
sculptor proceeds to form his figure thereon, using fine 
clay for the purpose, which, like any ordinary piece of 
loam work, forms the thickness, and is taken off when the 
impression has been obtained. The moulder in budding 
his cope around the figure takes cognizance of all its irreg- 
ularities, and provides for a correct separation of all its 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 277 

parts with as little damage as possible to the original de- 
sign. According to the depth and direction of the various 
depressions on the surface of the statue, so will the number 
and complexity of the divisions of his mould be. During the 
process of building provision is made for pouring by plac- 
ing running-gates at favorable points ; hooks and staples 
are inserted in the various small pieces, or false cores, 
which must necessarily be formed separate from the main 
copes, these hooks being afterwards used for fastening them 
to the main cope before the final closing of the mould. 
The separating of the mould is a delicate operation, requir- 
ing considerable experience and judgment on the part of 
the moulder. 

Alter all the parts have been built around the statue 
the edges of the joints are made even, and guide-marks 
made, so that the final closing may be facilitated; they are 
then taken away, one after another, carefully, till all have 
been removed, after which the clay figure or thickness is 
removed, and the mould, inside and outside, treated after 
the manner usual for ordinary loam work, dried thor- 
oughly, closed together, rammed in the pit, and cast. 

The system of moulding colossal statuary in pieces, to be 
afterwards joined together by pinning, etc., is fast gaining 
favor where the old prejudices regarding the supposed dis- 
credit of producing statues piecemeal have disappeared, 
and very many of these figures, including the Statue of 
Liberty, New York Harbor, are now made in this manner. 
Cost for transportation, risks in moulding, chances for un- 
soundness, and weight of metal used in moulding colossal 
statuary by the old methods are by this means considerably 
reduced, whilst it is claimed that all seams can be so neatly 
fitted as to defy the keenest scrutiny to discover where the 
junctions have been made. It is also claimed that by this 
separation into convenient sections they can be easily made 
in sand, which gives a better impression and greater regu- 



278 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

larity of thickness : also, that the thickness can be easily 
arranged to give the most metal where the greatest strains 
exist. 

The process of moulding in sections is to divide the 
plaster model at such places as will be most favorable for 
moulding, due consideration being given to the parts which 
will best hide the points of junction, when they are joined 
together. The cutting is done with small saws, and after 
the several pieces have been provided with the requisite 
tenons and mortises for joining together when cast, and 
any weak parts strengthened by cross-stays, should the 
model be hollow, they are ready for the moulder. 

The flasks for this class of work are not necessarily differ- 
ent to those in ordinary use, except that the nicest fit is 
indispensable. Three pieces of flask are needed, one being 
simply a frame; the other two, although constituting 
upper and lower flasks, are to be both barred, and for that 
reason may be both called copes. On account of the irreg- 
ularities of the surfaces they are usually made with loose 
bars. These flasks are always best when they are made 
interchangeable. For moulding the outside of the piece 
of model which we will suppose to be a portion of the body 
of Fig. 181, one half of the model is set into the frame-piece 
as a roll-over flask ; the ends are then rammed flush with 
the model, and the outside formed by ramming false cores 
all round if necessary. These false cores overcome all 
difficulty with regard to broken and uneven surfaces, as 
they can be made to separate at such places and in a direc- 
tion favorable to a clean lift. When these false cores have 
been all formed out of fine tough sand, suitably strength- 
ened with irons, and provided with the necessary lifting- 
staples, also the running-gates set therein at the proper 
places, a joint is made over all with parting-sand and the 
first cope set thereon and rammed. This done, the cope is 
lifted and set down on its back, the false cores are taken 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 279 

off the model and placed in their respective places in the 
cope, which now presents the exact impression of this side 
of the model, and must, after due preparation, be used for 
ramming the first half of the main core. 

The opposite side of the model is now treated exactly as 
was the first up to the point of lifting the cope, which, 
when rested on its back, must not have the false cores 
placed therein, as in the first cope, until they have been 
utilized for forming the upper half of the main core. As 
before stated, the first half being duly prepared by laying 
thereon a thick coat of parting-sand, a layer of core-sand 
is then spread all over, and the core-iron placed in position; 
and after due provision has been made for vents and sup- 
ports — somewhat after the manner shown at Fig. 182 — the 
lower half is rammed level with the joints of the first 
cores; the upper half is then formed by placing the false 
cores of the second half in their respective order over the 
lower ones, continuing the ramming of the main core in- 
side as they are thus set over alternately; thus, step by 
step, continuing the process until the last false core has 
been so placed, and by this means the main core formed. 
The false cores are now lifted away and secured into their 
respective seatings in the second cope. 

All that now remains to be done is to shave off the thick- 
ness at this half of the main core, cover with the roll-over 
flask, fill with sand, and ram hard enough to support the 
core, which, when the two flasks have been fastened to- 
gether, is reversed, the cope lifted off, and set down on its 
back like the other. The false cores are now lifted off the 
main core and secured in their seatings when the remain- 
ing half of the main core is shaved down, the moulds fin- 
ished and blackened, and all is ready for the oven. 

All sands for false cores and other intricate parts of the 
outside of moulds, made like the above described, should be 



280 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

of a fine, tough, but open nature; whilst that for the cores 
should be chosen principally for its openness. 

For very small statuary in bronze it is only necessary to 
make a small block core out of the porous cement, which, 
though porous, is very tenacious, and admits of being cut 
and filled to any form required. When this has been 
formed and due allowance made for thickness, the artist 
proceeds to lay on the wax, on which he may, according to 
his ability, bring out the most delicate lines and curves 
imaginable. When the figure has been completed on the 
wax thickness, it only remains to thrust a few wires 
through the whole, ami surround it with an iron flask, fill- 
ing the space between with the porous cement. By the 
application of heat the wax is caused to run from the mould 
at the bottom, through holes provided for that purpose, 
and, as the core is held in a correct position by the wires 
which are firmly fixed in both the inner and outer cement 
bodies, the mould, when dry, can be turned with the holes 
on top; the latter serving the purpose of running-gates for 
filling the space, previously occupied by the wax, with 
metal. The greatest care must be exercised in this, as in 
the other methods, to have the mould thoroughly dry and 
free from steam, and besides vents from the core, there 
must be free vents from all points in the casting in which 
air or steam might get confined. By this means the most 
remote and delicate parts of the mould are reached by the 
fluid metal, and a good impression of the whole of the 
original wax figure obtained. 

The figure to be produced in bronze may, if not too large 
and unwieldy, be worked direct after this manner: A 
plaster cast of the figure, previously wrought and finished, 
or any other finished object, is the pattern from which the 
moulder takes an impression in two halves. These impres- 
sions are carried off the model in stout iron skeleton 
frames, after the manner previously described. The mate- 



STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 281 

rial from which they are made being, in this case, com- 
posed of a mixture of one third plaster of Paris to two 
thirds fine brick-dust, made to the right consistency with 
water, not only enables the moulder to take a good impres- 
sion of the model, but being made porous by the brick-dust 
introduced, may be used as moulds proper for the outside. 
Sheets of fine clay are now rolled out, and spread evenly all 
over the surface as thick as it is intended the metal should 
be. When, this has been done the moulds may be clamped 
together, and the inside filled with the same mixture as 
for the copes; but if the core is large or complicated, the 
skeleton core-iron must be used as in the cases before men- 
tioned, not forgetting to make provision for carrying away 
the gas from the heated core, etc. The mould can now be 
again separated, the core lifted out, and the thickness 
removed ; and as it is really composed of a top and bottom 
flask, the joints may be utilized for carrying the air and 
steam from the interior of the mould to the top by means 
of gutters cut therein. If it is thought advisable to run 
the metal into the mould at any point below the top, gates 
may also be prepared in said joint. When copes and core 
have been thoroughly dried, the closing proceeds in the 
regular way, excepting that all studs required for holding 
the core in position must be made of bronze. 

All that remains to be done after the upper half has 
been closed over is to bind the whole firmly together with 
stout iron clips provided for the purpose, elevate the mould 
to the required angle, make the pouring-basin, and cast. 
The nature of the materials used for both core and cope in 
this instance admits of no half-measures in drying — this 
must be absolute. 

The model or pattern, in this instance, is saved. 

No country equals France for the number of its fine-art 
foundries, the principal ones being in and about Paris. 
The most systematic methods prevail, and no effort is spared 



282 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

that will enable them to maintain the supremacy which at 
this day rightfully belongs to them; economy is studied in 
every detail of management as exactly as it is in the best- 
managed factories of the day. Some of their inventions 
for the treatment of art-work in the foundry are of 
world-wide reputation, and must be seen to be fully appre- 
ciated. 

The Egyptian bronze consisted, according to Bessari, of 
two thirds brass and one third copper. Pliny says that 
the Grecian bronze was formed by adding one tenth lead 
and one twentieth silver to the two thirds brass and one 
third copper of the Egyptian bronze, and that this was the 
proportion afterwards made use of by the Eoman statua- 
ries. 

The modern bronze is commonly made of two thirds 
copper fused with one third brass, and recently, owing to 
the great demands for ornaments and decorative furniture, 
lead and zinc in small proportions have been added. These 
additions, it is said, increase the fusibility of the alloy, and 
facilitate the process of casting. 

In mixing plaster, never pour the water on the powder, 
but shake the powder into the water, taking care that it 
does not run into lumps. Proceed in this manner till the 
powder comes to the level of the water and then stop, if a 
thin plaster is wanted; a little more if a stronger plaster is 
needed. Amateurs commit the error of being too hasty in 
their movements, stirring the whole as it is being poured, 
and using too much of it. When the whole of the gypsum 
has been poured in, allow the ingredients to remain undis- 
turbed for a few seconds, and then stir gently with a 
spatula; when it has assumed the consistency of cream, 
pour at once into the mould; it will then set in ten min- 
utes, and be ready for taking out in half an hour. 



THE ART OF TAKING CASTS. 283 



THE ART OF TAKING CASTS. 

EXPLAINING THE SUBSTANCES USED : PLASTER OF PARIS, 
BEESWAX, DOUGH, BREAD-CRUMBS, GLUE, ETC.; TO 
TAKE A CAST IN METAL FROM ANY SMALL ANIMAL. 
INSECT, OR VEGETABLE; TO TAKE A CAST IN PLASTER 
FROM A PERSON'S FACE; TO TAKE CASTS FROM MED- 
ALS; TO TAKE CASTS IN ISINGLASS; ELASTIC MOULDS, 
ETC. 

In order to obtain a cast from any of the above-men- 
tioned objects the first operation is to procure a mould, by 
surrounding the thing to be copied with some material 
which can be pressed into all the various parts of the fig- 
ure. This will be the mould, which, when it has become 
sufficiently hard, is to receive some substance, by pouring 
or otherwise, that will correctly fill all its parts, and be- 
come when set an exact counterpart of the original figure. 
The manner of moulding will always depend upon what- 
ever is to be copied; should there be no projecting parts, 
or cavities undercut, the method is simple enough, as it is 
only necessary to surround it with the mould-forming sut 
stance and withdraw the same direct. 

SUBSTANCES USED FOR FORMING THE MOULD. 

Plaster of Paris, wax, metal, and other substances are 
used for this purpose, according as the urgency of the case 
demands. Plaster of Paris, prepared as described in arti- 
cle "Statue Founding," and brought to the consistency of 
cream, may be poured to any thickness required, always 
observing the precaution to oil well the object to prevent 
the plaster from adhering. 



284 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

A very good mould, when it is required to use the same 
frequently, may be made from the wax mixture given in 
the article mentioned above; but in all cases where the 
position of the model is vertical or in any position liable to 
more than ordinary rough treatment, it is best to form the 
mould of modeller's clay, such as described in article ''Pat- 
tern Modelling in Clay," page 189. This may be applied 
to the surface in sheets, previously sprinkled with whiting 
to prevent sticking when it is to be removed. 

BEESWAX, DOUGH, BREAD-CRUMBS. 

The above-mentioned substances are excellent materials 
for taking impressions of small objects; especially are they 
serviceable when it is desired to make moulds for seals and 
other tilings of a like nature. Should the relief show any 
marked irregularity of surface which would prevent its 
impression being taken clean and without fracture, then 
remedy this by filling the cavities, adding the same, with 
due consideration to the original, when the impression has 
been taken. 

Any departure from a plane surface, such as cylindrical 
or other forms, must necessarily be divided into as many 
parts as will admit of a clean separation from the model, 
such parts to be afterwards joined together for casting. 
One way is to compress the clay well over all parts of the 
model in thickness sufficient to make a good firm mould, 
which, when it has hardened somewhat, is then divided 
with a suitable knife at such parts as will permit the sev- 
eral divisions to be easily withdrawn. Before lifting them 
away draw lines or gutters at all the joints so that the 
closing together may be facilitated. After lifting away 
they must be allowed to dry, but care must be t;iken to 
keep them in proper shape. If proper care and judgment 
is used in choosing the places for dividing the mould, 
much labor may be saved and better work effected. 



THE ART OF TAKING CASTS. 285 

After the divisions have been dried, it only remains to 
oil the surfaces well, and place them together again in 
proper order, with the hole upwards. The mould is then 
ready for the plaster, when the necessary binding together 
has been done. It is not necessary to make these objects 
solid; if weight and cost of plaster is an object, a core may 
be inserted, and thus reduce the thickness as desired. 
Statuettes, figures, busts, etc., may, in similarly prepared 
moulds, be cast of either bronze, zinc, or lead, with this pro- 
viso, that under no circumstnnces must this be attempted 
if the mould be not absolutely dry; otherwise the steam, 
rapidly generating, will cause a sudden explosion, which 
may endanger the lives of those near by. 

TO TAKE A CAST IN METAL FROM ANY SMALL ANIMAL, 
INSECT, OK VEGETABLE. 

After a box sufficiently capacious to hold the object has 
been provided, and well oiled in the inside, the animal 
must be suspended by a string or strings ; the several 
parts of the animal or leaves of the vegetable must be ad- 
justed to a natural position, and a piece of wood, of suit- 
able dimension to form a gate or runner, must be attached 
to the body or main part of the object, and at all the ex- 
tremities wires must be so set as that a clear passage for 
metal or air may be secured throughout the Avhole mould. 
After these have been all properly secured to their respec- 
tive places, a sufficient quantity of plaster and brick-dust, 
in the proportions before explained, must be prepared and 
poured within in such manner as not to disturb either the 
object to be cast or to remove any of the connections. 
A short time suffices for setting of this plaster, when the 
running stick and wires may be withdrawn and the box 
taken away, after which the mould must be subjected to a 
moderate heat for some time, gradually increasing the 



286 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

same until a red glow is obtained. This burns the object 
within to such a condition as to make the operation of 
cleaning out the ashes an easy matter. The passages pro- 
vided for runner and vents serve to allow of blowing a cur- 
rent of air through the mould, and by this means freeing 
it of every vestige of the article placed therein, and leaving 
behind a cavity which, when filled with metal, will answer 
to the form of the original. Sometimes it is somewhat 
tedious to extract all the ashes, and much shaking and 
blowing with the bellows are required to effect a thorough 
cleansing; but if it be practicable to fill the mould with 
quicksilver the operation is measurably shortened, as the 
metal carries all the dust before it as it passes through and 
out at the runner and vents. 

When the cast is of brass or copper, have the mould very 
hot, but a cooler mould will do for either lead or tin. Tap 
the mould gently as the metal is poured, and allow every- 
thing to become cold before extricating the casting, which 
latter operation requires great care when there are parts of 
more than ordinary fineness and delicacy. A little water 
will help to soften such parts of the mould as persist in 
adhering too strongly. 

It may not always be convenient to obtain the fine-pow- 
dered brick-dust for this purpose, in which case Stour- 
bridge clay, well washed and mixed with equal parts of the 
finest sand, will answer. Pounded pumice-stone and sand 
in equal parts, to the same proportion of plaster of Paris, 
make very good moulds. 

TO TAKE A CAST IN PLASTER FROM A PERSON'S FACE. 

When it is desired to take a cast of a person's face the 
person must lie down on his back, his hair being previ- 
ously so arranged as to prevent any of it interfering with 
the operation. A paper tube is then inserted into each 



TEE ART OF TAKING CASTS. 287 

nostril, so that the hreathing may not be interfered with. 
Salad or some other pleasant oil must be applied to the face 
to make the separation easy. The plaster is then poured, in 
small quantities at a time, till the whole face has been 
covered to the required thickness, about one-fourth to three- 
eights of an inch being a sufficient quantity if the operation 
is smartly performed. But a short time is required for the 
plaster to set, and it may be removed at once and used for 
a mould in which to form a clay head, at the same time 
rectifying the closed eyes and otherwise perfecting the clay 
model. This model is now used to obtain another cast in 
plaster in as many parts as are necessary to effect a clean 
withdrawal, which, when oiled and placed together again, 
form the final mould for the plaster cast, which must in 
evitably be a fac-simile of the person's face. 

TO TAKE CASTS FROM MEDALS. 

Either plaster of Paris or melted sulphur will answer 
for this purpose. First oil the medal with a brush dipped 
in olive-oil, and after surrounding the medal with a strip 
of paper, cut to the depth of the required mould, brush 
the surface of the medal over with a little plaster made to 
the consistence of cream, and then fill up the rest. The 
idea of brushing a small quantity all over the surface before 
tilling in the rest is to make sure that the air is all ex- 
pelled from the surface, and thus prevent bubbles forming 
there. After it has set hard, remove, and allow it to dry; 
a fire will be necessary if the weather is cold or damp. If 
the object operated upon after this manner is more than 
ordinarily large, use fine plaster on the surface, and a 
rougher and cheaper kind to fill in with. 

If hot sulphur is poured upon silver medals they will 
tarnish very badly. 

When a mould, after being cast as above described, is to 



288 THE IBON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

be used for a sulphur oast, let it be prepared as follows: 
Mix, in a bottle, one ounce of oil of turpentine with one-half 
pint of boiled linseed-oil. After well shaking this mixture, 
subject the mould to repeated dipping until it has absorbed 
all the oil it can contain, when, if it is kept in a dry place for 
a few days, its surface will have become very hard and fit 
to cast sulphur thereon. Whether the cast be sulphur or 
plaster which is taken from this mould, a similar process 
to the one adopted for obtaining the mould may be fol- 
lowed, not neglecting to oil the mould, excepting that in 
the case of sulphur a ladle will be required for melting. 

TO TAKE CASTS WITH ISINGLASS. 

Isinglass dissolved with water at a gentle heat is all that 
is required for this purpose. The solution when ready 
must be carefully brushed with a fine brush over the sur- 
face of the medal, and then allowed to dry. As soon as it 
is hard it may be raised from the surface, and upon exami- 
nation a most beautiful impress of the medal will be found. 

Any color may be imparted to the cast by adding color- 
ing to the solution, and if desired, the appearance of gold 
may be imparted by laying a little gold-leaf on the rough 
side. 

ELASTIC MOULDS. 

Moulds may be made elastic for plaster of Paris casts 
which have more or less undercarving of the model. Take 
8 parts glue, 4 parts molasses, mixed and boiled together, 
and to this add 1 part of boiled linseed-oil gradually 
stirred in. This mixture must be cast over the model 
whilst hot; when cold it may be easily removed and pre- 
pared by oiling for the plaster cast, which when set can be 
removed without damage, as the undercut parts, being 
elastic, recover their original position again. 



PATTERN-MODELLING IN CLAY. 289 



PATTERN-MODELLING IN CLAY. 

The art of carving, so far as producing patterns for the 
foundry is concerned, is fast dying out, and the wood- 
carver's place is being taken by the clay- modeller, who not 
only produces the same work with equal accuracy aud 
distinctness, but, owing to the nature of the case, can 
produce it quicker piece for piece, as well as duplicate his 
work to an extent unlimited. 

No matter how intricate and difficult the design may be, 
the carver must of necessity work out the whole quantity 
needed for the pattern required, making the cost of pro- 
duction assume very great proportions in all jobs of more 
than ordinary magnitude. 

With the modeller it is very different: all that is required, 
when a considerable quantity of a similar design is to be 
produced, is to model one piece of convenient length, from 
which 'piece' any quantity may be cast with remarkable 
facility, and afterwards joined together. 

The modeller, like the carver, is not to be classed with 
the regular artificer or mechanic, inasmuch as it requires 
in both cases more or less of inborn genius, making it 
therefore hardly possible for any one to attain to jmy dis- 
tinction in that calling unless his inclinations tend in that 
direction naturally; this being the case, good modellers are 
few, and consequently the remuneration for their work is 
proportionately high. How important this art is becoming 
to the manufacturer can be readily understood when we 
observe that in almost every technical school throughout 
the country a modelling department has been added. 

Plainly speaking, the work of the modeller, in this in- 
stance, is to copy the drawings made by the designer, pro- 



290 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

dncing such copy in plastic clay, an impression of which is 
then taken in plaster, from which ' plaster cast ' a fac-simile 
in wax is produced. 

The clay used for modelling is specially prepared with 
the view of retaining its plasticity at least as long a time as 
the model requires for its manipulation; ordinarily, dry 
clay kneaded with glycerine is used, but for extraordinary 
work, that requires more than an ordinary length of time 
to produce, the clay is made from the following ingredients: 
clay, 3; sulphur, (!; oxide of zinc, 1 ; fatty acids, 2 ; fats, 10; 
first saponify the zinc-white with oleic acid, which then mix 
with the other fatty acids; add sulphur in flowers and the 
clay in a dry powder. 

The mode of procedure, after the clay has been brought 
up to the right consistency, is to lay on the prepared frame 
or board as much of the clay as will be sufficient to work 
out the design. 

If the work required be simply strips of moulding, etc., 
to be set in certain parts of the pattern already made, but 
lacking such moulding, then all that is needed is to nail 
strips of wood, as thick and as wide apart as the moulding 
is to be, on a suitable board; this is then filled in, and the 
design modelled thereon. But should the piece be of a more 
elaborate nature, such as a piece of statuary or other more 
difficult design, then a proper frame for the purpose must 
be made, on which the whole of the design is to be worked 
out. 

The modeller works the clay with his fingers usually, this 
being considered the most artistic method, although it is 
necessary for him to use a few tools of bone or steel in 
parts where without them it would be impossible for him 
to produce a sharp or elegant finish. 

When a correct model has been made, of such form as 
will admit of a direct withdrawal from the sand, it is simply 
oiled all over, and a plaster cast taken from it; the cast will, 



PATTERN-MODELLING IN CLAY. 291 

of course, be a correct impression of the model. Over this 
impression strips of clay, rolled out to the desired thick- 
ness, are pressed carefully, so as to obtain an equal thick- 
ness all over; another plaster cast is then taken of the 
back or rough side. These together form, as it were, top 
and bottom flasks, and before separating them they are to 
be pared even at the edges, or, what perhaps is better, de- 
pressions may be formed in the lower joint before taking 
the upper impression; this of course insures a perfect fit 
of the two parts. 

After separating the parts, the clay thickness can be 
taken out, gates and vents cut, mould cleaned and oiled, 
and again closed together securely; it is then ready to 
receive the molten wax. 

In the case of models which will not admit of direct 
withdrawal, as before mentioned, the impression in plaster 
must be obtained by dividing the surface into sections, 
prepared in such manner as will permit of easy separation, 
or, as the moulder would say, 'drawbacks' are made; and 
most assuredly this part of the business does tax the skill 
of the modeller, as he cannot possibly accomplish his final 
cast in wax until he has moulded his model in plaster, or, 
to be more plain, he must produce cope and core in plaster 
by the use of the clay thickness before he can produce a 
fac-simile in wax of the model he fashioned. 

It may be here said that the marks of the several divi- 
sions which the modeller must make serve as a guide to 
the moulder when he receives his pattern to work from. 

It will be observed, also, that wherever such divisions 
must take place that will be the place to cut the wax 
pattern when it is found practicable to mould the same 
without having recourse to the sectional partings, by simply 
drawing out each separate part in the direction most favor- 
able for leaving a clean impression. To run a wax cast 
successfully, it is important that the fluid wax enter the 



292 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

mould at as many places as will assure a rapid filling of the 
mould as well as force out all the confined air; otherwise 
the work will be scarred and blurred. To obviate this it is 
best to force the molten wax in at the lowest point of the 
mould, leaving the top open for the air to escape through; 
but as this would be impracticable in many instances, other 
means must be adopted for the accomplishment of this 
end. 

The mixture for this wax is as follows: paraffin wax, 26 
pounds; beeswax, 13 pounds; resin, 12 pounds; linseed- 
oil, 4 pounds; the resin and oil to be well boiled together 
before adding the other ingredients. 

Any ordinary boiler with a faucet at the bottom for with- 
drawing the liquid will serve the purpose of melting, and 
the degree of liquidity will be determined according to the 
nature of the piece to be cast. 

After casting and trimming it is necessary to give the 
patterns a thick coat of bronze varnish; this, of course, 
destro} T s all tendency to sticking in the sand. It is also im- 
portant that one of the plaster sides be used as a face-board 
on which to ram the pattern in the sand. 



TO MOULD A SPIRAL POST. 

Post-moulding seldom claims much attention, such work 
being usually considered beneath the notice of moulders 
who have graduated with high honors; but here is one, I 
think, which demands careful examination before it is 
passed over as a common job. 

Fig. 183 represents the post, which is seen to be a spiral 
figure composed of two strands f" diameter, interlacing 
each other and separated by the distance of \" . The total 
length is 2 feet, the ends being solid and 2" diameter. 



TO MOULD A SPIRAL POST. 



293 




.1 L 




V 







294 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

If the reader will observe Figs. 184 and 183, he will at once 
see how almost impossible it would be to make this job, by 
using loose cheeks, in green sand. Fig. 184 shows the form 
of the joints at that particular place, where the two spirals 
Get parallel ; and Fig. 185 shows the altered form of the joints 
when the pattern is at an angle of 45 degrees. We will as- 
sume the ever-changing form of the joint intermediate to 
these positions shown, and decide that, however careful 
we might be. the job, if made in green sand, would be at 
best but a very rough one. 

It is my purpose here to show how best and cheapest to 
obtain a set of core-boxes from which good cores can be 
made and joined together in such form as will, by the use 
of a block print on the pattern, as shown at Fig. 186, make 
the job a very simple one. 

In this instance the block prints might extend beyond 
the spirals at the ends, leaving only the plain ends out; 
but, as will be seen farther on, I have other motives for 
making the junction as shown, and do not desire to make 
other drawings. 

Fig. 187 shows section of a wood box, the inside dimen- 
sions of which correspond to the size of the block print on 
pattern, the ends being made to receive the pattern in such 
position as will, when the four cores are joined, make a per- 
fect fit at the ends. 

The first process is to fill all the lower part of the box 
with clay, as seen at A, and proceed to form the whole joint 
along the pattern, as seen at B, after which oil over the 
surface and fill space B with plaster. 

After giving due time for the plaster to set hard, the 
position of the box can be changed, and each side treated 
similarly, when you will have four plaster casts answering 
in form to Figs. 184 and 185. 

It only remains to separate the four parts, and take a 
plaster cast of each, as seen at Fig. 188, and the core-boxes 



TEE 'BERLIN" FINE CAST-IRON WORK. 295 

are made, which with ordinary care will produce cores as 
true as the plaster casts from which they were made. 

The pattern when made must be separated diagonally, as 
shown at Fig. 189. 

Another mode of moulding such a job is to have the 
spirals separate, made of steel, and very accurately finished 
to a slight taper. Tight iron boxes, the outside dimen- 
sions of which must be made to correspond with the block 
print A, Fig. 186, provided with adjustable ends through 
which the ends of the spirals must protrude, allow for 
ramming the spirals within the box in green sand. 

The patterns can then be twisted out endwise, and the 
ends of box taken off; it is then ready for the mould, which, 
as in the other case, is best if made diagonally, as seen at 
Fig. 189. 

The latter method facilitates production to a consider- 
able extent, but, owing to cost of preparation, is not to be 
thought of unless the order is a very large one. 



THE "BERLIN"' FINE CAST-IRON WORK 

How these interesting works of art originated calls for 
more than ordinary notice. It appears that during the 
struggle between Prussia and France, under the first Na- 
poleon, the ladies gave up their jewels to the government 
to assist in resisting Napoleon, and received in exchange 
similar articles made of cast iron. Some of these iron 
ornaments and chains are remarkable specimens of fine 
cast work, one chain 4 ft. 10 in. long, having 180 links, 
weighing no more than If ounces. Some of the separate 
pieces of which these articles are made up are so small, 
that it is said there are nearly 10,000 in a pound weight. 
Professor Ehrenberg, the renowned microscopist, states that 



296 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the iron of which they are composed is made from a bog-iron 
ore, and that the sand is a kind of tripoli, also containing 
iron. Both are composed of the remains of animalcules. 



MALLEx\BLE-IRON CASTINGS. 

THE PROCESSES OF THEIR MANUFACTURE EXPLAINED, IN- 
CLUDING ANNEALING, PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL. 

The process of decarbonizing cast iron, in order to pro- 
duce malleability, has been known for over 150 years. It 
was described in 1722 by Reaumur, a distinguished French 
metallurgist and philosopher, and patents for its applica- 
tion to the production of malleable-iron castings were 
granted to Samuel Lucas, of Sheffield. England, in 1804, 
and fifty years later to Brown and Lennox. 

Lucas, in his specifications, describes it as a method of 
separating the impurities from crude or cast iron without 
fusing or melting it, and of rendering the same malleable 
and proper for several purposes for which forged or rolled 
iron is now used; and also, by the same method, of im- 
proving articles manufactured of cast iron, and thereby 
rendering crude or cast iron applicable to a variety of new 
and useful purposes. 

All this, as we now well know, was accomplished by 
simply casting such articles in any desired shape, and 
afterwards making them malleable by extracting the carbon 
from them. 

This new industry rapidly developed, as was natural, 
seeing that so many articles difficult of forging could be 
made with comparative ease this way, and thus reduce the 
cost of production immensely. Foundries specially de- 



MALLEABLE-IRON CASTINGS. 297 

voted to the production of this line of work multiplied in 
all directions, and every effort was put forth to establish 
the business on a sure basis. Success attended these efforts 
to a marked degree, for the quality of the work done was 
so high as to almost defy the shrewdest to distinguish 
whether the products were malleable or only malleable cast 
iron. 

The present extent of the business may in some measure 
be estimated from the fact that, in addition to the already 
large plants in this country, there is now in course of erec- 
tion at West Troy, N. Y., a malleable-iron foundry to cost 
$100,000. The main foundry is to be 75 X 427 feet, with 
three eils, each 75 X 375 feet, and in close proximity to 
the main building is the annealing-room, a building 80 X 
450 feet. 

The castings produced by this method are sometimes 
called ' run steel/ and very large pieces, such as gear-wheels, 
etc., are often cast and subsequently decarbonized. Screw- 
propellers also are thus produced, in combination with 'case- 
hardening,' or conversion of the surface metal into steel by 
a subsequent process. 

Hydraulic cylinders, which under ordinary circumstances 
would require to be cast six inches thick, are by this 
process made absolutely safe and water-tight at about half 
the thickness. 

A great variety of articles formerly made by the black- 
smith are thus produced in a more economical and correct 
manner than could be by forging. Bridle bits, parts of 
blocks, snuffers, various forms of builders' and domestic 
hardware, some kinds of culinary and other vessels, and 
numerous other things are thus produced. Many of these 
are subsequently case-hardened and polished. 

A certain amount of polish may be imparted to malleable 
cast iron without case-hardening, but the lustre is by no 
means so brilliant. It may also be turned in the lathe 



298 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

with about the same results as wrought iron, exceptiug 
that the tools suffer more under the operation. 

The specific gravity of malleable cast iron is a trifle less 
than cast iron. 

The softness and flexibility of this iron is remarkable, 
almost approaching wrought iron, yet it is almost impos- 
sible to weld it; but it may be joined together by fusion, 
or brazed to steel and wrought iron by the aid of hard 
solder. Another of its characteristics, peculiar to wrought 
iron or soft 'steel, is that thin pieces may be bent double 
when cold, but it is very seldom that the operation can be 
duplicated by bending it back again without fracture. 

It would appear as if malleable cast iron was the inter- 
mediate state between gray iron and steel, possessing a 
higher tenacity, with increased toughness, than the former, 
but differing from the latter in having a lower ductility, 
less tenacity, and in containing graphitic carbon. 

Malleable cast iron, if plunged red-hot into water, is 
hardened, but the process of tempering cannot be reliably 
performed, as in steel. At a moderate red heat it is pos- 
sible to forge some of the best qualities, but if it is over- 
heated it crumbles away as soon as it is struck. 

Owing to the non-removal of constituents other than 
carbon by this process, it is essential that a fairly pure cast 
iron be employed if it is desired to obtain a good malleable 
metal. English firms prefer the various brands of hematite, 
whilst in America the several brands of unquestionably 
good charcoal-iron are selected from. 

The mottled irons are invariably preferred for this 
purpose, for the simple reason that the soft gray iron, 
whilst it may be best for ordinary purposes, on account of 
its superior fluidity, is totally unfitted for this work, be- 
cause its carbon, being wholly or almost in a graphitic 
state, leaves the castings porous and weak after it has been 
abstracted from them by the process of decarbonization to 



MALLEABLE-IRON CASTINGS. 299 

which they are subjected. The white irons would be the 
best, having all their carbon in the state of chemical com- 
bination; but, on account of the latter-mentioned con- 
dition, all such irons, when melted, are very sluggish, and 
consequently unfit for pouring into the moulds. This 
accounts for preference being given to the medium or 
mottled irons. These irons are sometimes further strength- 
ened by the addition of steel or wrought scrap, the propor- 
tions of which alloys can only be determined by close 
observation and constant practice. 

From the above general observations it will be seen that 
all soft gray irons are totally unfit for the production of 
malleable cast iron, and that a decided preference is given 
to mottled charcoal and all such irons as have been smelted 
from hematite ores. 

Claude Wylie, in his instructive work, " Iron and Steel 
Founding/' says: " A short time ago we visited a foundry 
in England, where we were told they were making steel 
castings, and found the metal used to be old and burnt 
fire-bars, of which they had an unlimited supply. These 
fire-bars were melted in an ordinary quick-melting cupola, 
the castings were made in ordinary green sand, and after 
the sand was removed from them they were passed into an 
annealing furnace with a large proportion of hematite ore, 
and there brought to near melting-heat — in fact, some of 
the boxes we noticed had a portion of them melted off; in 
three days they were ready for use. The old fire-bars re- 
melted would be most suitable metal for the purpose, con- 
taining no graphitic carbon, and little if any silicon. The 
castings we saw afterwards were all that could be desired 
as malleable cast; they bent and chipped like malleable 
iron, but could not be welded." 

The moulding of malleable-iron castings need not differ 
in practice materially from that which is followed in the 
production of ordinary cast-iron work, and it is usual to 



300 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

say that similar methods are followed. Whilst this state- 
ment may be true partially, it is very evident that their 
practice is on the whole much superior to anything we see 
ordinarily in our best iron-foundries. A most complete 
system of match-plates, in con junction with the id most 
faultless precision of the moulding-machines lately invented, 
conspire to make the moulding of malleable-iron castings 
a more accurate and reliable system than is dreamed of by 
those unacquainted with their methods. 

Proprietors of iron foundries all over the country are 
becoming keenly alive to their own shortcomings in this 
particular, and are even now hastening to copy the methods 
so successfully inaugurated by their fellow-craftsmen in the 
malleable shops. 

On account of the lesser fluidity of the iron used for 
malleable-iron castings, it is usual to cut larger running- 
gates into the moulds, but care is taken in selecting the 
best place for such gates, so that there will be no fracture 
caused should it be forcibly torn off by the extra contrac- 
tion and brittleness of the iron used — a very common 
occurrence. 

Very much of the common class of work is cast from an 
ordinary cupola after the regular manner, and not a little 
is melted in clay crucibles with a natural draught at the 
small places, but the reverberatory furnace is no doubt the 
most suitable means of supplying the right quality of metal 
for malleable-iron castings. The iron, when melted in 
reverberatory furnaces, escapes immediate contact with the 
fuel, and consequently does not absorb any of its impuri- 
ties; and, furthermore, any excess of carbon in the iron 
charged will be considerably lessened by the oxidizing 
action of the flame during the process of melting. 

For heavy crucible-melting in England, it is common to 
use a Siemens regenerative furnace, any degree of heat 
desirable beino- more certainly obtained at a much less cost 



MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS. 301 

for fuel than is possible by the old methods. The peculiar 
feature of this furnace is that the waste heat is employed 
to heat up both the gaseous fuel and the air requisite to 
burn it, before they are introduced into the chamber in 
which they undergo combustion. 

An explanation of the theory of malleable cast iron is 
given by Alder Wright, in Ency. Brit , who says: " In 
order to carry out the conversion of cast iron into malleable 
cast iron in this way, the articles to be treated are packed 
in cast- or wrought-iron chests in oxide powder; the chests 
are then stacked, one above another, in a kind of rever- 
beratory furnace, and gradually heated up to a red heat, 
which is maintained for the requisite time, after which 
they are annealed by slow cooling. With charcoal pig 
pretty free from silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus, and with 
fuel in the furnace free from any large quantity of sulphur, 
a soft, but tough, tenacious, and readily malleable, skin is 
produced; if, however, the heating is continued for some 
time after the whole of the carbon originally present has 
been removed, the articles become brittle, owing to the 
formation of the oxide of iron disseminated through the 
mass, just as copper, bronze, and analogous substances are 
rendered brittle through a similar cause. 

" This circumstance, together with the known character 
of the chemical actions of carbon dioxide on iron and 
carbon at a red heat, indicates the nature of the processes 
taking place during the decarbonization. The ferric oxide, 
and the heated air in contact with it, first oxidize the car 
bon in the outermost film to carbon dioxide; this then 
passes inwards by the process of * occlusion' (gradual 
solution of gases in solids), and reacts upon the carbon of 
the next layers, in accordance with the equation 

CO, + C = 2CO, 

the carbon dioxide thus formed first becoming dissolved in 



302 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the iron, and subsequently, when the iron is saturated 
therewith, gradually diffusing outwards, becoming con- 
verted into carbon dioxide as soon as it comes in contact 
with either the ferric oxide of the packing, or the partially 
oxidized iron of the outer film, which, when free from 
carbon, reacts on the carbon dioxide thus: 

yC0 2 + xFe = Fe.,0,, + yCO. 

"In the outermost layers, accord ingty, there is always a 
tendency to the formation of iron oxide in virtue of this re- 
action, and simultaneously a tendency to the reduction of 
this oxide by the agency of the carbon oxide which is being 
formed in the interior layers and travelling outward; as 
long as this latter action keeps the former in check, the ac- 
cumulation of iron oxide in the outer layers does not take 
place to such an extent as to deteriorate materially the te- 
nacity of the malleable-iron skin, but when the carbon of the 
core has been so completely removed that the supply of car- 
bon oxide from the interior almost ceases, the formation and 
accumulation of iron oxide in the outer layers goes on, 
rendering them more or less brittle. In the inner layers 
the removal of carbon by the penetration of the dissolved 
carbon dioxide, and its reaction on the carbon, is continu- 
ally progressing, the decarbonization gradually creeping in- 
wards, as it were, until finally the innermost central parts 
become decarbonized also. The non-removal of sulphur, 
silicon, and phosphorus during the process is due simply 
to the fact that these elements are not acted upon by the 
occluded carbon dioxide as the carbon is, and consequently, 
not being oxidized, cannot be eliminated. The iron oxide 
used becomes partially reduced during the operation; in 
order to make it fit for use over again, it is moistened with 
a solution of sal-ammoniac, and exposed to the air in order 
to rust, and so reoxidize it. 

" The whole process is in effect an exact inversion of the 



MALLEABLE-IRON CASTINGS. 303 

chemical changes taking place during the manufacture of 
blister steel from malleable iron by the process of cementa- 
tion, and differs from the ordinary puddling method for 
the purification of cast iron in this salient respect, that in 
the latter case the formation of the oxide of iron by the 
effect of heated air, and its direct addition in the form of 
'fettling/ give rise to the production of a fluxed mass, in 
which is incorporated a notably larger amount of oxide of 
iron, which reacts on the carbon, sulphur, silicon, and phos- 
phorus, oxidizing them and converting them into products 
which are either gaseous, and escape (carbon and sulphur 
dioxides), or are non-metallic, and fusible, and hence sepa- 
rate from the iron as a fused slag or cinder." 

Annealing or cementing furnaces are simply furnaces in 
which an article is packed in the powder of another sub- 
stance, and therewith subjected to a continued heat below 
the fnsing-point. The article is changed by a chemical re- 
action with the powder. 

Bar-iron packed in charcoal and heated in a cementing- 
furnace becomes steel, the iron absorbing some of the car- 
bon from the charcoal. 

Cast iron, packed in powdered hematite or smithy scales, 
and similarly heated, becomes malleable, the oxygen of the 
hematite or scales absorbing some of the carbon in the 
iron. 

With some few slight modifications, the cem en ting-fur- 
nace for producing blistered steel will answer the purpose 
of annealing or decarbonizing cast iron. Some of the late 
improvements in this country provide for the flame passing 
all round the chamber without coming into actual contact 
with the boxes containing the castings to be annealed. 
Access to this chamber is obtained at one end, where the 
boxes can be inserted or withdrawn at any time without in- 
terfering with the continuous working of the furnace. The 
saving in fuel, as well as to the furnace, will be greatly ap- 



304 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

predated, as it allows of almost uninterrupted working, the 
consequence of which is that the expenses for repairs, inci- 
dent to a periodic stoppage, are avoided. 

The Siemens regenerative gas-furnace is much used in 
England, for the annealing-furnace as well as for melting 
with. As arranged for this purpose, the furnace has four 
longitudinal main flues, divided by partitions into a num- 
ber of smaller flues; the two exterior flues receive the 
heated gas, and the two interior ones the hot air. Over 
these is a closed arched muffle in which the annealing- 
boxes are placed. The hot gas and the hot air, being 
kindled, pass beneath at the sides and over the top of the 
arch of the muffle The furnace is never permitted to 
cool entireh 7 , the boxes being allowed to cool on the floor. 

It is necessary that all castings, previous to being placed 
in the annealing-boxes, should be freed from every particle 
of sand; this is done either by abrasion in the tumbling- 
barrel, scrubbing with wire brushes, or pickling in dilute 
sulphuric acid. If the latter method is adopted, the cast- 
ings should be thoroughly washed and dried before being 
placed in the annealing-boxes. 

The annealing-boxes, sometimes called saggers, are 
usually made of cast iron, the same nature as the castings 
to be annealed therein. For ordinary purposes they are 
about 13 inches in depth and width and about 1G inches 
long, and if carefully used they will last from 15 to 20 heats. 
For heavier and larger pieces special boxes are made to 
suit the requirements, wrought iron sometimes being used 
for the purpose, but these latter warp and twist out of 
shape in a very short time. 

The articles when cleaned are, in some places, imbedded 
within the annealing-boxes in powdered iron oxide, viz., a 
pure red hematite ore, as free as possible from all earthy 
matter; at other places smithy and rolling-mill scales or 
some analogous substance is used; they are then kept at a 



MALLEABLE-IRON CASTINGS. 305 

red heat in the annealiiig-fnrnaee for as long a time as re- 
quired, when a diminution is produced in the amount of 
carbon contained, so that the cast iron becomes more or 
less converted into soft iron. 

When the action is pushed to the extreme, all or almost 
all of the carbon is removed, that in the outer layers dis- 
appearing first. Should the heating not be continued long 
enough to remove all the carbon, that which remains is 
found in the innermost layers, which constitute a core of 
more or less decarbonized cast iron with an outer skin 
of malleable iron. 

The powdered iron ore mentioned above is sometimes 
objectionable, on account of the earthy matter which is 
sometimes mixed with it, more or less ; this latter when 
present in too great quantity is fused by the intense heat of 
the furnace, and adheres to the castings in the form of 
scoria ; this not only interferes with the decarbonizing 
of the casting, but requires to be scrubbed off by a second 
hard application of the tumbling-barrel, or some other 
means equally efficacious. 

On the other hand, the scales are entirely free from such 
impurities, and do not interfere with the legitimate opera- 
tions of annealing. As before noticed, the scales lose some 
of their oxidizing properties at every heat, but that is 
effectively renewed by the application of dilute sal-ammo- 
niac, and allowing them to rust again. By this means they 
can be used over and over again along with the new, which 
is added to make good the waste. When the ore is used it 
is previously ground and sifted ; what passes through an 
;i-inch sieve is rejected, as it contains too much earthy 
matter. 

Packing the boxes is an impcrtant part of the annealing 
process. A quantity of the ore or scales is first placed on 
the bottom, on which, separate from each other, the first 
layer of castings is placed; these are then covered to a 



306 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

depth of f inch with the ore or scales, on which the second 
layer of castings is placed, separate as before, and the 
operation continued until the box is nearly full, when the 
lid is carefully set in, resting on a final layer of the ore or 
scales; the covers are carefully luted, to prevent the ad- 
mission of air. The boxes are usually inserted into the 
oven in pairs. 

Long practice on the part of the furnaceman qualifies 
him for judging how long a time each kind of casting re- 
quires for complete decarbonization; the heaviest are 
assigned to the hottest parts of the furnace, marked in 
such manner as will enable him to give to each class a 
period of heat proportionate to their bulk. For these rea- 
sons it is customary to place the castings in each box as 
near alike in bulk as possible. 

The oxide which forms on the castings during the pro- 
cess of decarbonizing is a reliable indicator of the quality 
or degree of malleability obtained,, the operator being able 
to judge of this according to the hues presented. 

No matter how clean the scales may have been, all cast- 
ings after being taken from the furnace require more or 
less cleaning to make them at all presentable. 

The capacity of annealing-furnaces varies somewhat, but 
they usually treat from 650 to 1200 pounds at one heat. 
The length of time required is from two days to two weeks, 
according to bulk; but, as explained at another place, they 
must not be kept at too high a temperature, nor remain 
too long, or the result will be opposite to what is desired — 
the castings will be hard instead of soft. Usually the heat 
is gradually slackened for about 15 hours before taking out 
the boxes, and the latter are allowed to become cold before 
taking out the castings. 



CHILLED CAR -WHEELS. 307 



CHILLED CAR- WHEELS. 

FULL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PATTERN, MOULDING-FLASKS, 
CORES, CHILLS, METAL MIXING, CASTING, ANNEALING, 
TESTING, WITH AN EXPLANATION OF THE THEORY OF 
CHILLING CASTINGS. 

American car-wheels are generally made of chilled cast 
iron. Some wheels are cast with spokes, and others, for 
light purposes, are made with a single plate hetwixt the 
hub and the rim; but the ' Washburn wheel,' which has an 
arch at the central portion, adjacent to the hub, the apex 
of which is connected by a curved web to the rim, as shown 
at Fig. 190, is the one most generally manufactured in this 
country, the large number of extensive plants engaged in 
their production giving ample testimony to their popu- 
larity. 

These wheels are subjected to very hard usage, and must 
naturally sustain shocks and strains of an extraordinary 
nature; consequently none but the very best brands of soft 
strong iron are used in casting them. Moreover, these 
irons must possess the quality of taking a 'chill ' readily, 
the depth of which may vary from \" to 1", according to 
the mixture. The proportioning of these several brands 
of iron to obtain the requisite strength and depth of chill 
is unquestionably the most important operation in their 
manufacture. 

The part of the wheel to be chilled is, of course, the 
outer circumference, or 'tread,' including the flange. This 
surface, to the depth of half an inch or more, is by the 
process of 'chilling' converted into white iron of a hard, 
crystalline, but brittle nature; almost like steel physically 
and chemically, excepting that it cannot be tempered. 



308 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



When the rims of these wheels are broken the fracture 
should show a bright steel color at the chilled part, gradu- 
ally diminishing in hardness towards the body of the wheel, 
where it should be soft and tough. In the following brief 
review of their manufacture we shall confine ourselves as 
near as possible to the practical side of the subject. Be- 
ginning with the pattern, and following the casting through 




Fig. 190. 

all the various processes, including annealing, we shah 
discover how much work., mental and physical, there is 
expended in the making of a chilled car-wheel. 



PATTERN". 

A true and well-made pattern is a chief desideratum in 
the manufacture of chilled wheels, for not only is it possible 
that chill cracks, which are manifestly more frequent when 
some particular pattern is used, but also other defects which 
a crucial series of tests prior to a final delivery reveals, may 



CHILLED CAR -WHEELS. 



309 



most assuredly have their origin in a faultily balanced and 
unevenly thicknessed pattern. 

Knowing that a wheel pattern cannot escape more or less 
rough treatment in the foundry, it is only common-sense 
and wise on the part of the pattern-maker to make all ex- 
posed parts of his pattern out of hard wood. Some places 
prefer to turn up an iron pattern for this class of work. 

It is a common practice to make the chamber core-boxes 
of iron, after the manner shown at Fig. 191, in which 




Fig. 191. 

boxes the cores remain until they are dry. The operation 
of making the core is plainly shown; the lower side A, A, 
with prints for vents B, being made in the core-box itself, 
while the upper side C is formed by the sweep D, which, 
as seen, is made to travel around the top, guided by the 
centre-pin E, and form the upper side of the core. 

Ordinarily this completes the making of this cor 3 until 
it hits been dried: but if the method suggested be adopted, 
it will be necessary to place a template with three evenly 
divided, holes over the core when it has been swept off, by 



310 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

the aid of which a small iron hearing can be pressed into the 
core level with the surface, and directly under each chaplet's 
place in the cope, as seen at A, Fig. 192. The object of this 
is that a short-shouldered stud f- " diameter may be used 
instead of the heavier one usually employed for that pur- 
pose. 

Even the centre core, simple as it may seem, is worthy of 
more than ordinary attention in tins case. Nothing should 
be left to chance, as we may rely upon it that a flattened 
core placed out of truth will naturally interfere with that 
equality of cooling so essential to success in this work. To 
avoid this it is advisable to use iron core-boxes that will 
give a perfectly true core every time. 



MOULDING, FLASKS, CORES. 

The whole operation of moulding a chilled wheel is 
clearly shown at Fig. 192, which is a representation of the 
entire mould when closed and ready for casting. 

It is usual to hold all the parts together by clamps or 
bolts, at the lugs provided for the purpose (those for cope 
and chill are to be seen in the figure), having separate ones 
for pinning the nowel and chill together; the cope, not 
requiring pins, necessarily being bolted fast to the chill 
when it is placed thereon for ramming. 

This figure shows the application of strong pins and 
keys A, A for all the parts, thus obviating the annoyance 
consequent on the use of either of the former-mentioned 
methods; a few keys being in every sense an effective 
substitute, and requiring only a blow from the hammer to 
either fasten or loosen them. 

The plan view in this figure explains at once the class of 
cope in general use, and gives the position of all lugs as 
well as that of the swivels, or trunnions B, B, which are 
cast oil the chill only. 



CHILLED CAR.WHEEL8. 



311 




312 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

The perforated bottom plate C, C is represented as 
strengthened by an outer ring D, D and an inner one E, 
E, which are connected by cross-ribs; this plate may be 
pinned and keyed after the manner shown for cope and 
chill. The only way to make this method of pinning abso- 
lutely effective in any case is to have all lugs m;ide extra 
strong and large, to make the pins as short as possible, and 
in this particular instance the latter should be not less 
than 1" diameter at the thread and 1^" above the shoulder 
at F, F. 

However true the pattern may have been made, it will 
avail but very little in producing a true casting if care 
is not exercised in ramming up the mould. This operation 
must of necessity be intelligently performed, and all good 
wheel-moulders are cognizant of the fact that hard, even 
ramming is the only way to success in this work. The 
sand chosen for the bottom of the mould should be of a 
very open nature, and used not over moist. That for the 
cope may be selected with a view to having good adhesive 
qualities in combination with those mentioned above, as 
every effort is made to make the sand hang in the cope 
without .the aid of lifters or nails, if possible. 

The best efforts of leading proprietors have been con- 
stantly directed towards improving their methods of 
moulding chilled wheels, until now, by the adoption of the 
pneumatic system, it has been made all but perfect; the 
latter power is manageable to a remarkable extent, moving 
either fast or slow, as it may be desired. This is produc- 
tive of an increased output with a diminished expenditure 
of labor, thus making it advantageous to employer and 
employe, as the latter usually works by the piece. 

The operations of moulding are, first, to place the cope 
on its back with the chill attached, into which the pattern 
is then placed, and the nowel pinned on and rammed, to 
be afterwards vented. The bottom plate is then made 



CHILLED CAR-WHEELS. 313 

fast to the nowel, and the whole turned over by means of a 
double sling made to fit the swivels on the chill, and bowed 
sufficient to allow the entire set of flasks to turn over clear 
of everything. 

When over, and resting level on the floor, the cope is 
rammed and vented, and the pouring-basin J formed, after 
which the chill is lifted off and reversed. This brings the 
cope along with it, exposing the impression of the top or 
cope side, the impression of the lower or nowel side being 
seen when the pattern is lifted out. There remains little 
to be done now except finish and blacken these two parts, 
and place the chamber and centre cores in their respective 
places; the cope can then be again reversed and closed over 
after the studs A have been inserted, as shown. 

These studs form a handy and effective means of holding 
down the chamber core, and require no attention after the 
mould is closed. The vents from the cores are taken away 
at the bottom plate after the manner shown at G and H. 

CHILLS. 

With very few exceptions, chills are invariably made of 
cast iron. 

How deep the chill may be formed in castings cannot 
safely be determined by any other means than actual pre- 
vious test of the mixtures to be used. 

The depth of chill in a casting is to some extent depend- 
ent on the bulk of metal contained in the chill. 

The smallest possible thickness of chill necessary to pro- 
duce a desirable chill on car-wheels when the mixture is in 
every sense favorable is about the same as the thickness of 
the rim to be chilled ; but on account of the hard usage to 
which they are subjected it is usual to make them much 
heavier. Still, this increased thickness produces very little 
increase in the depth of chill obtained by the thinner ones. 



314 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

The chill reduces the temperature of the metal with 
which it comes into immediate contact almost instantly; 
but if the casting is of very heavy proportions, the chill 
should be made thick enough to effectively absorb whatever 
heat must subsequently pass from the casting outwards, 
and thus prevent the already chilled surface from being 
rem el ted. 

Metal for chills should be of the same nature as that 
used for the castings which are to be cast therein, viz., extra 
strong and fine-grained. All irons of a highly graphitic 
nature should be discarded on account of their openness of 
grain. 

The chances for chill cracks will be materially lessened by 
having the flasks level for pouring; likewise, if the iron is 
allowed to cool before running it into the mould to as low 
a degree as will just run a smooth surface on the chill with- 
out seaming, there will be less danger of the above unpleas- 
ant experience. 

It is claimed by some that a deeper chill results from 
having the chill made hot; whether this be so or not, it is 
always preferable to have them at least warm enough to 
prevent any moisture from settling upon them. 

Chills for car-wheels should be bored out, and well 
polished to a very smooth surface, after which the surface 
is to be slightly rusted by the application of some dilute 
acid. This rust is to be afterwards rubbed off, and the 
surface touched over with a thick paste composed of black- 
lead and oil before casting. There must be none of the 
paste left on the chill; the idea is to rub the lead well into 
the pores of the metal, and thus prevent the molten iron 
from finding a lodgment there. 

When not in use, place all chills in a dry place, and 
cover the polished surface well with grease, taking care to 
clean well when they are again brought into use. 



CHILLED CAR-WHEELS. 315 



THEORY OF CHILLING CASTINGS. 

The chill acts upon the surface of the molten iron by 
rapidly absorbing the heat at the point of contact. Tins 
brings about rapid cooling, and cast iron is burdened by 
rapid cooling, as may be satisfactorily proved by casting- 
four plates, equal in area, but of different thicknesses, from 
the same ladle of iron. The one at 1" thick will bo gray 
and soft; the one at \" thick will be perceptibly harder 
and more dense; the one at \" thick will be still harder, 
with evidences of mottle in parts; and the one at \" thick 
may be absolutely white, plainly showing that the change 
from gray to white has been effected by the difference in 
the rates of cooling. 

How this change occurs is explained thus: It is supposed 
that whilst cast iron is in a molten state all its carbon 
is held in combination, and that when this carbon amounts 
to some 2i or upwards per cent of the iron, and especially 
when the fused substance is rapidly cooled, the metal 
solidifies in an almost homogeneous mass, possessing some- 
what different properties from those of good steel; we then 
term it white iron, on account of its color and fracture. 
Under other conditions, especially when a longer time is 
allowed for solidification, a more or less complete separation 
of graphite, and consequent production of a cross-grained 
crystalline structure, results, the product being then termed 
gray cast iron. 

The question as to whether the carbon which does not 
separate in the graphitoidal state on cooling is combined or 
not, is one about which great divergence of opinion exists. 
However, it is a well established fact that by melting and 
very rapidly chilling certain kinds of gray cast iron they 
are more or less converted into white or '/nettled iron, 
the amount of l combined ' carbon largely increasing, and 



316 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

that of 'graphitic* carbon correspondingly decreasing. 
The converse change can be brought about ill some kinds 
of white iron by fusing and very slowly cooling them, 
a notable separation of graphite, and diminution in the 
quantity of combined carbon present, being thus brought 
about. 

The above facts lead us to these conclusions, that by the 
sudden cooling of the molten iron, caused by its intimate 
contact with the chill at the rim of the wheel, the carbon 
at that portion is held in chemical combination with the 
metal, any separation of combined carbon into graphite 
being prevented by the rapid cooling spoken of. 

On the other hand, the natural separation of graphite, 
superinduced by the slower process of cooling which takes 
place at the inner parts, goes on with an easily discernible 
tendency to a maximum degree of softness at the centre of 
the wheel, that point being the last to become cold; conse- 
quently we have a rim hard as hardened steel on the tread, 
the remaining parts becoming gradually softer and more 
tough as the centre is approached. 

METAL MIXING, CASTING. 

As previously affirmed, the mixing of the metal for car- 
wheels to be chilled is preeminently the chief feature in 
this remarkable industry, and can only be accomplished 
satisfactorily when conducted by some responsible person 
whose only business it is to make selections from an intel- 
ligently graded stock of irons, chiefly charcoal, which are 
supposed to possess qualities suitable for this class of work 
especially. By unremitting attention to the results of tests 
made daily from small cupolas provided for the purpose, he 
so proportions his mixtures as to bring about the required 
depth of chill. 

Any attempt to give mixtures for such work is rendered 



CHILLED CAR-WHEELS. 317 

futile on account of the variations in the quality and nature 
of the iron supplied, as most all of the iron received at 
these works must be tested by the fracture, and graded by 
the mixer in a manner intelligible only to himself. 

To insure a thorough mixing of the iron when melted, so 
that no portion of the metal used shall vary in the slightest 
degree from what has been previously determined by the 
mixer, a large tank or receiver, geared for turning, is pro- 
vided, which stands immediately in front of the cupolas 
and receives the molten iron from each at as many spouts 
as there are cupolas. The capacity of these tanks varies, 
according to requirements, from 10 to 20 tons. 

By means of this method a large supply of well-mixed 
metal is constantly on hand for filling the casting ladles, 
which are usually run under the lip of the receiver on 
trucks. When filled, they are quickly run towards the 
crane (each floor in most cases being provided with an in- 
dependent crane) for casting. 

Where so large an amount of iron is handled by this 
means, it is important that everything be hot to commence 
with — both ladles and receiver; therefore a plentiful supply 
of charcoal is always on hand for that purpose, the surface 
of the receiver being especially cared for in this respect. 

Almost as soon as cast, preparations are made for releas- 
ing the wheels, which must whilst red-hot be dispatched to 
the annealing ovens, where, by a slow process of cooling, the 
tension of the particles of metal is equalized, and the wheel 
rendered more able to stand the hard wear and tear of rail- 
road usage. 

ANNEALING. 

The process of annealing chilled car-wheels requires some 
address and experience to perform it in the best possible 
maimer, and varies in the degree of heat applied, as well 



318 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

as in the period of cooling, according to the nature of the 
metal operated upon. 

Considerable attention has been directed to this subject, 
the object being to make the web soft and tough, that it 
might withstand the jar and strain incident to use, and at 
the same time have a hardened rim that will bear the 
wear. 

In order to accomplish this, ovens or annealing pits are 
provided in sufficient number and capacity to take in all the 
wheels as they are cast. These ovens, usually set level with 
the floor, are so arranged that a constant emptying and re- 
filling may be kept up without interruption, and are some- 
times made of sheet-iron cylinders lined with brickwork, the 
whole resting over a flue or heat-chamber, which connects 
with a furnace, from which latter the heat passes through 
the chambers into the ovens at the bottom. A very small 
amount of fuel is sufficient for this purpose, the object being 
to simply prevent the castings from cooling too r;ipidly. 

Three days is the usual time allowed for annealing. 

The processes of annealing are not, however, the same at 
all places : some merely place the wheels in a pile in cylin- 
drical pits provided with non-conducting jackets, which 
protracts the period of cooling, and contributes to the effec- 
tiveness of the operations. 

Another method is to pile them in the oven symmetrically, 
and allow a blast of air to be carried through the centres of 
the hubs which form a continuous duct to the top, as seen 
at Fig. 193. Dampers may be placed at the inlet A, also at 
the chimney B, affording means for regulating the passage 
of air, and thereby modifying the rate of cooling. By this 
means the wheels are induced to commence cooling at the 
centres, the cooling gradually extending outwards. In this 
instance the heat is at no time sufficient to 'draw the chill/ 
and for this reason is to be preferred to some other methods 
which are open to objection on that account. The figure 



CHILLED CAR -WHEELS. 



319 



shows only seven wheels, but it is common to pile from 10 
to 15 in one pit. 

In some other places layers of charcoal are placed between 
the wheels as they are piled in the pit, which is so arrauged 




that the quantity of air may be graduated to regulate the 
combustion. 

Another method is to insert intervening rings, so placed 
as to separate the chilled tire from the web which is to be 
annealed. The interior space around the hubs is filled with 



320 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

charcoal, and the outside space around the tires is filled 
with sand. The charcoal, being ignited by the heat of the 
wheels, burns slowly and anneals the web, while the sand 
protects the tread from the same action ; thus, it is claimed, 
retaining the chilled surface which it has acquired in cast- 
ing. 

An improvement on the preceding method is claimed for 
a mode of introducing the air-draught, and in the mode of 
isolating the tires. The wheels are piled upon supporting 
rings at the bottom of the oven, so that a passage is formed 
by the holes through the hubs for cold air, and another pas- 
sage around the tread of the wheels for the draught, for burn- 
ing the charcoal which is distributed upon the perforated 
flanges of the ring interposed between each wheel. The 
openings in the base of the annealing oven are the means of 
admission of atmospheric air to aid in the combustion, and 
this supply is graduated to suit the requirements of the case. 
Another opening admits the air to pass upwards through 
the hubs. 

It is needless to state that where chilled wheels are made 
in great quantities the very best appliances for handling are 
indispensable. For a long time steam and hydraulic power 
has been utilized at all such places, the latter principle 
serving a good purpose at the annealing-pits, Avhere red-hot 
wheels must be handled quickly; but of Life compressed air 
has come into use for power in the car-wheel foundries, with 
eminent success. 

The use of compressed air has been adopted at numbers 
of places where steam was found to be objectionable on ac- 
count of the noise when escaping, and the general dampness 
around ; also at other places where it was thought desirable 
to avoid the annoyance from leaking and loss of time usually 
incident to a hydraulic system. 

Whatever principle of oven is used, it is important that 
the wjieels, as soon as set almost, be taken out of the flasks 



FIRE-CLAYS AND FIRE-BRICKS. 321 

and placed therein whilst red hot, and before any of the 
strains incident to unequal cooling should come upon them. 
This is done with a marvellous degree of alacrity at some 
places by aid of the splendid equipment provided: the 
wheels are rapidly relieved from the flasks, placed on trucks, 
and run to the ovens direct, where they are again as rapidly 
lifted and piled into the ovens, and straightway covered up. 
In some shops the annenling ovens are in the immediate 
vicinity of the moulding floor, in which case they are piled 
direct as they are lifted out of the sand ; where this can be 
done it is unquestionably the better plan. 

TESTING. 

After the allotted time for annealing has expired, the 
wheels are lifted out of the ovens and transferred to the 
cleaning rooms, where the fins and sand are removed, after 
which they undergo such a testing as would naturally startle 
any one accustomed only to the lower grades of cast iron. 

No effort is spared to discover flaws of an}' description; 
cracks soon reveal themselves under the heavy sledging 
they receive, and dirt-spots are soon discovered by the 
sharp pick which in most places is freely used over the 
surface. The chill also receives its share of attention, to 
make sure that it is deep enough or not too deep, a fault 
either way condemning it at once. 



FIRE-CLAYS AND FIRE-BRICKS. 

The principal constituents of fire-clay are silica and 
alumina, accompanied by small proportions of iron, lime, 
magnesia, water, and organic matter, being sufficiently free 
from the silicates of the alkalies to resist melting at very 
high temperatures. 



322 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

Fire-clay may be looked upon as a special term for the 
gray clays of the coal-measures, interstratified with ami 
generally in close proximity to the seams of coal, m beds 
varying from a few inches to many yards in thickness. 
They are locally known as 'chinches' and ' underclays,' 
and are supposed to represent the soil that produced the 
vegetation from which the coal was formed. 

It is found chiefly in the coal-measures, and varies con- 
siderably in its quality of refractoriness. The gray color 
of the coal-measure clays is to some extent due to the pres- 
ence of carbonate of iron, which if present in too great 
quantity is prejudicial to the clay when required for fire- 
brick. 

The Stourbridge fire-clay contains silica 73.82, alumina 
15.88, protoxide of iron 2.94, alkalies 0.90, water G.45, 
which chemical analysis shows a preponderance of silica in 
this as compared with the tertiary clays, which all contain 
a much larger proportion of alumina. 

Fire-clay taken from the coal-measures has an average 
contraction of 2 percent, £ of an inch for drying and burn- 
ing being the amount which a Stourbridge brick (9 inches 
long) contracts when the clay is not previously mixed with 
some burnt material. 

A close, tough nature in the clay used for making fire- 
brick is opposed to its usefulness, as it all the more readily 
yields to the melting influence of the fire; allowing that 
the bricks are of similar chemical properties, the coarse 
open ones are always the best, being more refractory. 

To obtain the best service from fire-bricks under almost 
any condition, they should be burnt until the contrac- 
tion has all taken place, and besides being of a similar 
texture all through, they should show a buff color. This 
can only be accomplished by careful firing. To discover 
the true quality of fire-bricks, they should be broken, and 
if they show a dark discoloration in the heart it is an 



GANISTER. 323 

evidence of too quick burning, and is conclusive proof of 
their inferiority. There are different ways of accounting 
for the destruction of a fire-brick when in common use: 
should they be too open they will crumble and waste, and 
if the material has been used with a too free admixture of 
small stones they are apt to split; and then there is the 
constant action of the heat itself, which is ever melting 
away at the exposed parts. 

The method usually adopted for the manufacture of fire- 
bricks is to incorporate with the clay about one third of 
broken fire-bricks. In this case a double purpose is served — 
the waste is used and the brick made less liable to contract. 
Sands of a silicious nature are also employed for this pur- 
pose. The bricks are either moulded with soft clay mix- 
ture direct from the pug-mill, or a drier mixture is pre- 
pared for compressing into iron moulds by the use of 
machinery, which gives a cleaner brick, taking less clay 
to make the joints when building — something to be desired. 



GANISTER. 



Simply speaking, ganister is composed of certain pro- 
portions of ground quartz, or silicious rock, sand, and fire- 
clay. It is extremely refractory, and on this account is 
largely used as a lining for Bessemer converters and other 
vessels in the manufacture of steel. It enters largely into 
the mixtures for forming the moulds intended for steel cast- 
ings. The ganister preferred for linings in the neighbor- 
hood of Sheffield, England, is a peculiar silicious deposit 
found under a thin coal-seam in that district; it is of al- 
most conchoidal fracture, therein differing from ordinary 
sandstones, and containing a few tenths per cent of lime 



324 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

and about the same amount of alumina, with small quanti- 
ties of iron oxide and alkalies, the rest being silica. 



GRAPHITE OR PLUMBAGO. 

Graphite or Plumbago, the 'black lead 'of our foun- 
dries, and used almost everywhere for the purpose of pro- 
tecting the surface of moulds against the great heat to 
which they are subjected from the molten iron, is used 
largely in the production of crucibles also, not in the 
pure state, but in admixture with fire-clay: the propor- 
tion of the former varies with the quality from 25 to 
nearly 50 per cent. These are the most enduring of all 
crucibles, the best lasting out 50 or 60 meltings in the 
brass foundry, about 45 with bronze, and 8 to 10 in steel 
melting. The best Ceylon graphite is employed, usually, 
in all the principal crucible works on the continent of 
Europe, and in the graphite-producing localities of Canada 
and the United States. It is used also in the manufacture 
of black-lead pencils. It is notable that plumbago is oc- 
casionally found in masses of meteoric iron, and that a 
substance of similar physical and chemical characters is 
produced in the blast-furnace during the preparation of 
cast iron, the same element being unpleasantly found in 
the ladles when the metal melted from irons rich m 
graphite becomes dull. Graphite is polymorphous, has 
a bright metallic lustre of a steel-gray color, and when 
pure is absolutely free from grit; when pulverized and 
rubbed between the fingers, and the polish produced in the 
same way is instantaneous and very bright, being like a 
darker shade of polished silver. It is very refractory in 
closed vessels, but combustible in air or oxygen at a high 



FUEL. 325 

heat. It is infusible. The laminated and foliated varie- 
ties are difficult to pulverize, reducing to scales instead of 
grains, and if it is wanted very finely divided, must be 
ground in water. These varieties are found in Ceylon and 
in some of our own States and in Canada. A good granu- 
lated graphite is found in Sonora, Mexico, and that from 
Japan is of the same character; but the granulated kind 
best known to commerce is found in Bohemia and Bavaria, 
which is cheap in price, but poor in quality for use hi the 
arts. It is from the latter kind that the cheap foundry 
leads are manufactured, but not being very refractory, it al- 
ways gives poor results. Graphite is the purest carbon next 
to the diamond, but requires a higher heat to burn it, 
and leaves a reddish ash if the specimen contains a trace 
of iron, as most of it does. 



FUEL. 



To rightly understand the nature of the different kinds 
of fuel at our command, it will be convenient to examine 
each kind separately, beginning with fluid inflammable 
bodies, then peat or turf, then wood-charcoal, coke, and 
lastly, wood or coal in its natural condition, with the abil- 
ity to yield a copious and bright flame. The fluid inflam- 
mables may be taken as distinct from the solid, for this 
reason, that they may be burned upon a wick, and by tin's 
means be made the most controllable sources of heat ; but 
as a rule they are seldom used for producing it, owing to 
the cost. Alcohol and the several oils are the kinds which 
form this class of fuel. Alcohol, when used as a fuel, 
should be strong, and free from water, to obtain the best 
results from it. 

We may burn oils with wicks similar to alcohol, but 
they are not by any means as satisfactory. Of course we 



326 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

may employ numerous small wicks, or use the argand 
burners to prevent the soot accumulations consequent on 
the simple wick; but at best we can scarcely avoid the 
charring of the wicks in any case which prevents them 
from absorbing the requisite quantity of oil required to 
maintain a steady heat. 

Peat or turf cannot be used for maintaining great heats, 
for the simple reason that it is too spongy and light. This, 
of course, increases its bulk, and prevents us from supply- 
ing a sufficient quantity to make good the rapid consump- 
tion A\hich is inevitable where violent heat must be kept 
up. Peat is supposed to give about one-fifth of the heat 
produced by an equal weight of charcoal. 

AVood-charcoal will give out an extreme degree of heat. 
Dalton obtained a result equivalent to melting 40 pounds 
of ice with one pound of charcoal, but Tredgold considers 
47 pounds of ice melted to be the real average effect of one 
pound of charcoal. 

Coke has several properties common to wood-charcoal, 
but is a more suitable fuel for long-continued and intense 
heats, because, containing the combustible matter in a more 
condensed form, it is consumed much slower, and can be 
charged in less bulk. The principal reasons for its being 
preferred to charcoal for melting purposes are, that it 
affords a greater quantity of heat before it is consumed, 
and at less expense. 

Wood and crude coal are much different in their natures 
to their charcoals, inasmuch as, when a plentiful supply of 
air is allowed them, they will afford a copious and bright 
flame; whilst smoke-laden and sooty vapors ensue if the 
air allowed is limited in quantity; the heat also is con- 
siderably diminished when the latter condition prevails. 
The hottest wood fires are those produced with dry wood. 
The kind of wood is also a cause of some difference; lime- 
tree wood is supposed to give out most heat in burning. 



FUEL. 327 

As regards the different kinds of coal, they may be classi- 
fied from various points of view, such as their chemical com- 
position, and their behavior when subjected to beat. Tbcy 
all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, form- 
ing the carbonaceous or combustible portion, and some 
quantity of mineral matter which remains after combus- 
tion as a residue or "ash." The nearest approach to pure 
carbon in coal is furnished X>y anthracite, which yields 
above 90 per cent. This class of coal burns with a very 
small amount of flame, producing intense local heat, and 
no smoke. It is especially useful in blast-furnaces and 
cupolas, but is not as suitable for reverberatory furnaces as 
some of the other kinds. The most important class of 
coals is that generally known as bituminous, from their 
property of softening, or undergoing apparent fusion when 
heated to a temperature far below that at which actual 
combustion takes place. The proportion of carbon in 
bituminous coals may vary from 80 to 90 per cent. 

The common fuel in India and Egypt is derived from 
the dung of camels and oxen moulded into thin cakes and 
dried in the sun. It has a very low heating power, and 
gives off aciid ammoniacal smoke and vapor whilst burning. 

Liquid fuel in the form of natural petroleum, and the 
creosote-oil from coal-tar distilleries, have recently been 
adopted for heating steam-boilers and other purposes. 
Though a dangerous substance, it becomes perfectly man- 
ageable when blown into a heated combustion-chamber as 
a fine spray by means of steam-jets, where it is immediately 
volatilized, and takes fire. The heating-power is very 
great, one ton of creosote-oil being equal to 2 or 2| tons of 
coal in raising steam. 

Natural gases, consisting principally of light hydrocar- 
bons, have now become an acknowledged agent for heat 
producing; puddling and welding furnaces as well as steam- 
boilers, etc., are entirely fired by the gas from wells bored 



328 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

for oil, some of which are over 1200 feet deep. The oil is 
conveyed to the several works through a line of pipe ex- 
tending, in some instances, many miles in length, and is 
delivered at a pressure of two atmospheres. 



ANNEALING. 



Annealing is the process by which metallic and other 
mineral productions are converted from a brittle to a com- 
paratively tough quality, presumed to be caused by a new 
arrangement of their constituent particles. In a consider- 
able number of bodies that will bear ignition it is found 
that sudden cooling renders them hard and brittle, while, 
on the contrary, if tbey are allowed to cool very gradually, 
they become softened or annealed. We have, however, 
noticed several alloys of copper (brass in particular), in 
which sudden cooling has the reverse effect — that of anneal- 
ing it. The process of annealing requires ability and 
experience to perform it properly, and varies in the degree 
of heat applied, as well as in the period of cooling, accord- 
ing to the nature of the metal or other substance operated 
upon. In the annealing of steel and iron the metal is 
heated to a low redness, and suffered to be gradually 
reduced in its temperature, covered up on a hearth. Ovens 
are constructed for this purpose, wherein the pieces of 
metal, according to their massiveness and the quality it is 
desired they should possess, are placed and retained at a 
low heat for days, and sometimes weeks together. The 
annealing of glass is performed precisely in the same 
manner. 



EOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 329 



HOW TO EEPAIR BROKEN AND CRACKED 
CASTINGS. 

THE FOUNDRY METHODS OF 'BURNING' ALL CLASSES OF 
WORK FULLY EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED. 

To say that more than half the attempts to repair 
castings by the process of ' burning' are failures, is by no 
means a random statement; and there are large numbers of 
intelligent moulders with practical experience in this some- 
what abused branch of. the trade who are convinced of its 
truth. 

How it is that failures occur so often does not always 
strike the average moulder, and he is forced to retire from 
his sometimes self-imposed task as gracefully as he knows 
how, and find consolation for his wounded pride behind 
that oft-quoted refuge of the ignorant, viz., 'It can't be 
done.' But this is only another proof, added to the many 
already adduced, that our education comes far behind in 
matters of this description, and we must, for some time 
longer at least, continue to grope in the dark. 

If past experimenters in the art of burning had been 
more intelligent, the list of failures would most unquestion- 
ably not have been as numerous; for the simple reason 
that, possessing a knowledge of the nature of such un- 
dertakings, impossibilities would have been more rarely 
attempted. They would have at once consigned to the 
scrap-pile most of the defective castings, knowing that any 
attempt at burning must inevitably result in a waste of 
time and ultimate loss. 

Even when the advisability of attempting a 'burn' is 
left to the judgment of the most scientific amongst us, 



330 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

there is a lack of positiveness in his utterances and manner. 
He is well aware of the countless circumstances which are 
against success, and takes care to supplement his grave 
advice by quoting a few of the adverse possibilities in the 
case, and invariably ends by asking his more practical 
associate how similar cases have resulted in his past ex- 
perience. 

It may be well to observe here, that past experience in 
this business is not by any means to be always taken as 
reliable data. Difference in construction and proportion 
of parts, one casting from another, are easily overlooked in 
similar castings, making them, whilst similar, not alike. 
Quality and nature of the iron contained in the castings are 
sure to differ, and even should these conditions approxi- 
mate somewhat, there may be structural differences, caused 
by the different temperature of the metal with which the 
castings were poured; in one instance hot and fluid, giv- 
ing homogeneousness and strength, and in the other dull 
and sluggish, with the resulting overlapping cold-shuts, 
and all the other weakening influences incident to cold 
pouring. 

Before attempting to repair any important casting by 
burning, consider well its general make-up, the variations 
of form, differences of thickness, rigidity, general or only 
partial; then think how this is going to be affected by. the 
extreme heat which must be applied to the parts in the 
immediate vicinity of the place to be fused. 

Expansion is an irresistible force, and just as soon as 
tli is extreme heat is imparted to one part of the casting 
the adj icent parts are acted upon at once: if there is suf- 
ficient elasticity in the general make-up of the casting to 
allow of this thrust taking place without fracture, there is 
a possibility of its resuming its original shape when con- 
traction takes place. This is the difficulty met with when 
it is attempted to join together, by fusion, the cracked arms 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 331 

of wheels, bed-plates broken in mid-section, cracks or holes 
in cylinders, condensers, etc. 

The mere fact of fusing the fractured surfaces, and thus 
joining the broken ends together by leaving a quantity of 
molten iron between, is very easy of accomplishment on 
fairly soft iron, but to avoid the dangers consequent on the 
operation of doing this is a difficulty not to be overcome so 
easily. 

Now, if it were safe and practicable to heat up to nearly 
melting-point all castings to be burned, and then fuse 
the fractured parts instantly, the dangers from imperfect 
fusion or breakage would be reduced to a minimum; but 
all who have had any real experience in this unsatisfactory 
phase of the moulder's art know how almost impossible it 
is to meet all these conditions. Just in proportion as these 
conditions fail of being met will the measure of success be. 

The above considerations, taken in conjunction with the 
fact that the parts melted must become, when cold, as 
much smaller as their full amount of shrinkage measures, 
whilst the remaining parts, no matter how much the cast- 
ing may have been expanded by the regularly employed 
methods of heating, do not shrink as much by fully 75 per 
cent, will explain why it is next to impossible to success- 
fully accomplish such jobs when the fracture is remote 
from the extremities of the casting. 

"When the fracture is at the extremities, as at the corners 
of plates, pieces of propeller-blades, etc., or when two 
whole sections are to be attached either by fusing the 
broken pieces together, or by casting on a new piece en- 
tirely, as in fractured shafts, rolls, etc., all difficulty ceases. 
These latter, having freedom endwise for expansion, leave 
nothing to be done except to make sure of a perfect fusing 
of the broken surfaces, whilst in the previously mentioned 
instances differences in degree of temperature, caused by 
unequal distribution of parts with the consequent unequal 



332 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



expansion, are sometimes sufficient in themselves to pro- 
duce disaster from breakage. This danger is supplemented 
by the before-mentioned fact that, inasmuch ;is there are 
differences in the amount of shrinkage betwixt the new 
parts and the old, there always remains this important 
factor, that if the parts immediately adjacent to the added 
metal are held rigid by the strength of those behind them, 
they cannot possibly follow up the full shrinkage of the 
new metal, and a forcible separation must therefore take 
place. 

Aside from this, should the rigidity spoken of not exist, 
the internal strains produced may act with such force upon 
the unequally distributed metal as to rend the casting 
asunder at its weakest place. 

Two good illustrations of the difficulties we have been 
discussing are shown at Figs. 194 and 195. The pillow-block 



B 





Fig. 194. 



Fig. 195. 



cap, Fig. 194, being 6 inches thick, a rising head, 4 inches 
diameter, was placed at A, and accidentally broken off whilst 
hot, tearing out a portion of the casting, as shown at B. 
The party in charge insisted upon burning at once, and 
proceeded to demonstrate his ability by first heating the 
casting red-hot, placing a core around the damaged part, 
and pouring about 1500 pounds of blazing-hot iron direct 
upon it, working the surface with a bent rod during the 
operation of pouring. So far as melting the surface was 
concerned, he was eminently successful, the result being 
a hole over 3£ inches deep and about 7 inches diameter. 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 333 

After the superfluous iron had been removed, and the sur- 
face well filed, I examined the job critical]}', and found 
that the above conclusions were verified unmistakably: 
the newly added metal had very perceptibly shrunk away 
from the rigid walls of the casting, forming a core of metal 
more or less disconnected at the sides, as shown at C, D. 
It was not until oil had been allowed to run into the fissure 
and had been again attracted to the surface by rubbing- 
soft chalk over it, that my friend could believe such a 
thing, although to a willing mind the fact was plain to the 
sight before recourse was had to the latter-mentioned aids. 

It will be plain from the above, that it is always desirable 
to limit the area of new metal, and thus lessen the total 
shrinknge, by ceasing to pour as soon as the fusion is 
effected. 

Fig. 195 shows end section of a 24-inch cylinder 1 \ inches 
thick; any attempt to mend such places by these means 
invariably ends as shown. 

It may be asserted by some that it is a common practice 
to successfully (?) burn holes in round and square columns, 
and even to attach lugs and brackets by this means; but 
I am very much afraid that if the results were carefully 
looked for by a responsible party, most of such attempts 
would be found more or less faulty, and that the extent of 
damage done would be always in proportion to the amount 
of new iron introduced. 

One reason why so much of this class of work passes 
muster is, that the paint effectually hides the fault from 
sight, and there being no subsequent trial by pressure from 
steam, air, water, etc., the extent of such damage is never 
ascertained, unless the casting should collapse when the 
load comes on. 

I have in mind an eminent structural engineer and iron 
manufacturer, whose belief in the truth of the above is so 
strong that he will not allow burning to be practised on 



334 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

any casting which will be called upon to sustain a constant 
load. 

There is no doubt that risks are taken oftentimes with 
apparently satisfactory results, but this does not prove the 
case, and it is always safest to try again whenever there is 
a doubt in the case. In fact, taking into consideration 
the amount of time and labor in transporting, heating, 
and all the subsequent manipulations entailed by a ' big 
burning job/ it is in the end made almost as costly an 
operation as moulding over again, to say nothing of the 
probabilities of failure always attendant upon such efforts. 

For the successful treatment of such castings as are con- 
sidered safe to operate upon by the process of burning, 
there are some few conditions which are indispensable to 
the production of a correct job. If the casting to be oper- 
ated upon is very hard, the chances for success are materially 
lessened; the brittleness of hard iron being proportionate 
to its hardiuss, this latter objection must be added to the 
difficulty of effecting perfect fusion. The softer the iron 
the more readily will it fuse. 

The same may be said with reference to the iron used 
for burning with. If the iron used for burning be hard, it 
loses its heat rapidly, and so conduces to failure in effect- 
ing a junction by its inability to cut into the surface acted 
upon; whilst soft iron, with its carbon principally graphitic, 
is more fluid, and retains its heat for a longer time. Tlie 
hotter the iron the more speedy and effectual is the opera- 
tion. 

All surfaces to be operated upon should be cleansed 
thoroughly from every particle of foreign matter, such as 
sand, grease, etc. If there is any doubt whatever, let a new 
surface be formed by chipping, drilling, filing, or any other 
Avay that will aid in presenting a pure, raw surface to the 
action of the molten iron. 

Open burning along a crack is wonderfully expedited 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 



335 



by having one lip at least of the pouring-ladle made after 
the manner shown at A, Fig. 196; very many failures are 
attributable to the mean appliances provided. A self-acting 
skimmer, the surface of the iron protected from the action 
of the air by two inches of charcoal, and a ladle-lip like the 
one shown, will give good results invariably. 

As before stated, there is but one rule in regard to heat- 
ing the castings to be burned; that is, to make them as hot 




Fig. 196. 



as practicable for working around. In order to accomplish 
this as near as possible, make all the necessary preparations 
beforehand; let the new portions of mould, cakes, cores, 
runners, etc., be made in loam or dry sand of hard, tough 
texture, and, remembering that the casting will be hot, be 
sure to provide for a quick and easy adjustment of all the 
pieces by a judicious paring of the joining parts, so that 
everything will fit at once, and no time be lost. The pieces 
thus prepared can be dried during the time the casting is 
being heated. 

It is always advisable to adopt a method of slow cooling 
or annealing after the operation of burning is performed; 
a very good place for ibis purpose is the oven when it can 
be spared conveniently: in fact, with all castings having 



336 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



complicated parts some method of annealing is indispens- 
able. The slower they are cooled the better. 

Sometimes a casting is broken after the manner shown 
at A, Fig. 197. When it is thought best to burn such a job 
on its flat, and the broken piece cannot be found, let a cast- 
ing be made answering to the form required, taking care 
to cut away the skin at the part to be joined; these can 
then be laid together and fused, as will be explained far- 
ther on. Much anxiety and trouble might be saved some- 
times if, when immediately the casting is poured and there 
is a doubt as to its soundness, the cope was lifted, and the 




Fig. 197. 

holes, if any are found, were burned at once whilst the cast- 
ing is red-hot. 

Another important feature in burning on a new piece, 
such as a tooth of a wheel, etc., is to so place the casting 
that the molten iron will be sure to pass over the whole sur- 
face, and also to make such an outlet at the lowest part of 
the fracture as will insure a steady outflow of the cooled 
iron after it has been forced over the surface to be fused ; 
Fig. 198 shows a spur-gear fixed so as to answer these con- 
ditions. 

If after failure to effect a junction it is thought advisable 
to make a, second attempt, be sure to cut the burnt portion 
away until the good graphitic iron is found; the partially 
decarbonized iron previously in contact with the molten 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 



337 



iron would effectually preclude all possibility of a second 
fusion at that place. 

Burning on to or attaching cast iron to steel when the 
surface to be acted upon is considerable, is attended with 
much difficulty on account of the conditions previously 
spoken of; but here again it is worthy of notice that the 
nearer the two metals can be brought together in tempera- 
ture before pouring, the less danger there will be of ulti- 
mate rupture from internal strains. To this end the steel 




y<f0m^S^£M 



Fig. 198. 

to be cast on should be heated to as high a temperature as 
possible, and set into a suitably prepared dry mould, the 
latter to be instantly closed, and very hot iron dropped 
from a considerable height directly upon it. 

Fig. 199 shows a temporary method of casting a flange on 
a pi|>e. This is not a burning process; as the pipe to be 
thus treated must first have a notch cut round its circum- 
ference, as seen, and being set on end in the floor the 
flange is formed by means of a pattern, using a covering 
flask and gating in the usual manner. The rigid pipe 
naturally interferes with the contraction of the new flange, 
so that this method is limited to pipes of small diameter. 
Wrought pipes can readily be provided with extemporized 
flanges of this kind, the thread end forming an excellent 
fastening. 

Going back to Fig. 197, we will endeavor to show how a 



338 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



casting of this kind may be repaired. The figure repre- 
sents an elbow-pipe 3G inches diameter, with square base at- 
tached. Should the piece at A, A be broken off, it may be 
fused to the casting by following the directions given. Let 
the casting, previously made as hot as practicable, be sunk 
into the floor, and place the first core, A, Fig. 200, directly 
under the fracture, evenly divided as seen; the piece to be 
attached is then set in its place, slightly apart from the 
main piece, so that the molten iron can find its way unin- 
terruptedly between; cores B, C, D, and E are then set in 
position as shown at Fig. 201. These cores are then to be 




/g|8^kiiiiii|iijiA 

Fig. 200. 



backed firmly with sand, as shown at Fig. 200. and weighted 
down; the pig-bed F is then formed, and all is ready for 
the iron. 

With a ladle, after the manner shown in Fig. 196, a steady 
stream of hot iron can be continuously directed along the 
line of the fissure. Core D being as high as the side cores C 
and B, prevents the iron from escaping in that direction; it 
must therefore all pass out over core E. The latter core be- 
ing raised only one inch higher than the casting, permits 
the cooled iron to flow rapidly away into the pig-bed F. When 
these jobs are so placed that the travelling back and forth 
can be accomplished by means of the racking-gear on the 
crane, the operation is materially facilitated. An assistant 
with a rod of iron to feel along the bottom will soon dis- 
cover-when' both sides of the fissure are fused, at which 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 



339 



poiiit it is advisable to cease pouring, for reasons already 
adduced. 

Core E being one inch higher than the casting, and the 
latter being set level in the floor, will allow sufficient iron 
to remain in the channel for finishing; therefore when the 
pouring has ceased it is only necessary to cover the molten 
surface well with charcoal, and to subsequently lay a few 
hot scraps over all to prevent too rapid cooling at that part. 
It is not wise to overdo this piling on of scrap as some do: 




Fig. 201. 



all that is required is to bring about equal cooling of the 
whole piece as toon as possible. 

It might be thought best to repair this or any other sim- 
ilar job with the web on edge, in which case all that would 
be required would be to set cores A and JJ, as seen at Fig. 
202, with the additional cores <md D, as seen at Fig. 203. 
These cores must all stand 3 inches higher than the edge 
of the casting; the opening E allows the cooled iron to 
pass into the pig-bed until the whole surface has been fused, 
when a clay plug on the end of the cupola man's ' bod- 
stick' can be inserted at E, the pouring continuing unin- 
terrupted ly in the- mean time, until the metal flows out at 
the opening F. This openings being as iu the other.cases 



340 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



one inch above the surface, leaves ample metal for finishing 
purposes. 

To burn a tootli on a wheel is not a difficult matter if 
proper means are taken for doing* it: the difficulty consists 
rather in preventing the casting from breaking during the 
operation. If the wheel to be thus mended is a spur, it is 
best to set it down in the floor on solid bearings in about 
the position shown at Fig. 198, ^4, ^ being the floor-line. 
Joints A and B can then be formed, and flask C fashioned 



n/n 




Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



to suit. A tooth pattern being made to fit the broken sur- 
face correctly, the flask is rammed and the impression 
taken in dry sand facing, the pouring-gate D being formed 
at the same time. The outlet E is cut, as seen at the low- 
est point of the tooth, runs under the flask, and is con- 
nected with the pig-bed F, when the final preparations are 
made. 

When joint B is formed, it may, if thought desirable, be 
secured to the wheel and there remain. The under side of 
the wheel adjacent to the broken tooth must be formed in 
dry sand after the most approved fashion; by this means 
the wheel can be lifted off the bearings and taken else- 
where to be heated. When the cope is dry and the wheel 
hot enough, the latter is again set down in its original posi- 



BOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 



841 



tion, the cope placed on and secured, and the pig-bed made. 
Inasmuch as this style of burning is essayed in a closed 
mould it depends entirely on experience and judgment as 
to how much iron is required for complete fusion by this 
method. When sufficient for the purpose has been run 
through, stop the outlet at G, as previously instructed, but 
don't cease pouring until the metal shows at D. 

To burn a tooth on a bevel-wheel is in all respects sim- 
ilar to the preceding case, except that, owing to the angle 





Fig. 204. 



Fig. 205. 



of the teeth being favorable for the purpose, the wheel may 
be set level on the floor, as seen at Fig. 204. 

To connect the two broken ends of a cracked wheel or 
pulley-arm is perhaps as critical a job as could be at- 
tempted, and requires more than ordinary watchfulness 
in heating the casting. Fig. 205 represents the arm resting, 
with core A set directly under the crack, and cope B with 
gate C rammed over the top; the outlet is shown at D. As 
this operation is to be effected in a closed mould also, and 
fusion produced only by constant contact with the flowing 
metal, and not by friction of the fluid iron over the surface, 
as more or less occurs in the preceding cases, there must 
be no mistake about the iron being as hot as it is possible 
to make it. 

This is one of the instances where there must be no more 
new metal added than is absolutely necessary to effect a 
junction, otherwise the local shrinkage of the added metal 
will be sufficient to separate it again, even after a good join 



342 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



has been made. Fig. 20G shows position of runner, form of 
covering flask with running gate A and outlet B. A very 
excellent way to insure a good clean surface, which will yield 
quickly to the fusing influence of the molten iron, is to 
drills-inch holes along the entire crack clean through; a 
very small amount of hot iron is then required to effect 
a perfect junction of the two parts. The heating of such 
castings as these may be done after the manner described 





Fig. 206. 



Fig. 207. 



for gear-wheels, but the greatest circumspection must be 
exercised, otherwise disaster will ensue, as the casting will 
break elsewhere. 

As previously affirmed, the burning of shafts, rolls, pro- 
peller-blades, etc., is more easy of accomplishment than any 
of the other cases cited. All that is necessary is to have 
the casting hot, and all the parts to be added, as well as all 
cores needed, previously prepared in dry sand. We will 
suppose a 2-1-inch roll with the neck broken off close to the 
body: this will necessitate the burning on of a new 14-inch 
neck with wabbler attached. Fig. 207 shows a section of 
said roll endwise in the floor, with its broken end upwards 



HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 



343 



and level with the floor-line at A, A. The two flasks B and 
C containing mould for neck and wabbler, also rising head 
D, are shown as set thereon and ready for filling with iron. 
When the casting has been rammed up to the top, and 
the joint A is formed level all round, flask B is set central 




Fig. 208. 



thereon, as seen at B, Fig. 208, and a cast plate, with a hole 
equal in diameter to the neck, is carefully placed on the 
flask. This plate, if heavy enough, may act as weight for 
holding clown as well as shield to protect the top joint. 
The connection of the outflow with the pig-bed is then 
made as seen at E, and all is ready for the iron, of which, 
for a job of this description, from 1500 to 2500 pounds, ac- 
cording to temperature, is needed. Fusion of the whole 



344 THE IRON-FOUNDEIi SUPPLEMENT. 

surface is best accomplished by directing the stream at 
different parts alternately, and at the same time rubbing 
the surface over with a ^-inch rod bent for the purpose. 
The person whose business it is to test the operation as it 
progresses will soon discover the points least affected, and 
direct the stream of molten iron to be chanced accordingly. 
As soon as the whole surface has been fused the outlet is 
plugged, and that portion of the mould filled to within an 
inch or two of the top. The surface of the molten iron in 
the mould is then freed from all scum and dirt and the 
plate lifted off, after which, when the joint has been 
cleaned, flask C is placed in position and secured. When 
this has been done the remaining portion of the mould is 
filled through the rising-head D, nearly level with the top, 
and the same system of feeding is followed out as for a roll 
cast ordinarily. 



BEAMS OF CAST IRON. 

When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded at 
each end, it will bear the same weight as when supported 
at each end and loaded iu the middle ; that is, each end 
will bear half the weight. 

Cast-iron beams should not be loaded to more than one 
fifth of their ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their 
lengths; that is, if a beam 10 feet long will support 1000 
pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long would support only 
500 pounds. 

A beam supported at one end will sustain only one fourth 
part of the weight which it would if supported at both 
ends. 



BEAMS OF CAST IRON. 345 

When a beam is fixed at both ends and loaded in the 
middle it will bear one half more than it will when loose 
at both ends. 

When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout it will 
bear double. 

When the beam is fixed at both ends and loaded uni- 
formly throughout it will bear triple the weight. 

The strongest rectangular bar or beam that can be cut 
out of a cylinder is one of which the squares of the breadth 
and depth of it, and the diameter of the cylinder, are as 1, 
2, and 3, respectively. 

Girders cast with a face up are stronger than when cast 
on a side, in the proportion of 1 to .90, and they are 
strongest also when cast with the bottom flange up. 

A cast-iron beam will be bent to one third of its break- 
ing-weight if the load is laid on gradually; and one sixth of 
it, if laid on at once, will produce the same effect if the 
weight of the beam is small compared with the weight laid 
on. Hence beams of cast iron should be made capable 
of bearing more than six times the greatest weight which 
will be laid upon them. 

Cast and wrought iron beams having similar resistances 
have weights nearly as 2.44 to 1. 

Cast-iron beams and girders should not be loaded to 
exceed one fifth of their breaking-weight, and when the 
strain is attended with concussion and vibration this pro- 
portion must be increased. 



346 1HE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



WROUGHT OR MALLEABLE IRON. 

The difference between wrought or malleable iron and 
cast iron is that the former is almost free from carbon. 
All the processes adopted for converting cast into wrought 
iron have for their object the removing of the carbon from 
the cast iron. 

Phosphorus, sulphur, and silicon in various quantities 
are almost always present in the cast iron, and it is equally 
important that these deleterious ingredients be taken away 
also. 

Before wrought iron can be produced from the cast iron 
the latter must be subjected to the several processes of 
refining, puddling, shingling or hammering, and rolling. 

The refinery usually consists of a flat hearth, made with 
sand, and surrounded with a water-jacket, through which 
a stream of cold water is kept constantly flowing, to prevent 
the jacket from melting. Tuyeres which connect with blow- 
ing-engine are set so that a stream of air may be made to 
play direct upon the hearth. The precise angle at which 
these tuyeres are set is supposed to play an important part 
in this operation. Sometimes the iron to be refined is run 
direct from the blast-furnace into the refinery; but when 
the crude iron is to be refined, the hearth, which is about 4 
feet square and 20 inches deep, is filled with coke and ig- 
nited, and, by the aid of the blast, brought to a high temper- 
ature. The pig iron is now thrown on and additional coke 
piled on. When the full blast has been applied the mass 
soon melts and settles to the bottom, where, it may be said, 
the process of refining really begins. By constant stirring 
with a bar the attendant brings every portion of the mass 
under the influence of the blast, which is kept constantly 



WROUGHT OR MALLEABLE IRON. 347 

blowing over it. This causes the carbon of the pig iron to 
unite with air which is rushing in at the tuyeres, and pass 
away as carbonic-oxide gas. Whatever silicon is present 
unites with the oxygen and forms silica, and the ox} T gen 
uniting with the iron forms the oxide. The silica of the 
sand uniting with oxide of iron produces a slag of silicate 
of iron. 

After the metal has been subjected to this refining pro- 
cess long enough to have parted with most of the impuri- 
ties spoken of, it is run out into a cast-iron bed covered 
with water, where it quickly cools, as water is kept con- 
stantly flowing over it. Being only partially decarbonized 
by this process, it is next broken into pieces of suitable size 
for the puddling furnace. The loss of iron by the process 
of refining amounts to about 10 per cent. 

Puddling means a further refining of the iron after it 
has left the blast-refinery, and is performed in a reverbera- 
tory furnace or ' puddling-furnace/ the sole or bed of 
which is about 6 by 4 feet; at one end is the fireplace, 3 
feet square. The body of the furnace is divided from the 
fire by a brick bridge ; the furthest end of the furnace is 
contracted to 18 inches in width, where it joins a brick 
chimney 40 feet high, having a damper at the top. The 
bed is made with a slight incline to the back, where a rapid 
descent is made to the bottom of the chimney, where the 
'floss-hole' is made for the purpose of removing the slag 
or cinder which forms during the operation. To prevent 
the direct contact of the fuel with the iron the bridge be- 
tween the fireplace and the bed is made high. The fire- 
place is provided with a door in front for the purpose of 
firing and regulating, another one being also provided on 
the working side. The puddling of the metal is done 
through a hole in the side directly ngainst the bed of the 
furnace, and another hole of larger dimensions is provided 
for charging the metal and cleaning the bed. 



348 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

White pig iron, or at least all such irons as have their 
carbon in a, combined state, are esteemed best for pud- 
dling, because they become pasty during the operation, 
and are more easily worked than the gray irons, which have 
their carbon in the graphitic state; the latter class of irons 
do not become pasty previous to melting. 

All districts do not adopt the 'refining' process for the 
production of wrought iron, and in others they do not 
charge the puddling furnace exclusively with refined iron; 
but where the grades of wrought iron are inferior, the 
crude iron is charged in the pig at once without previous 
preparation in the refinery furnace. 

Puddling is accomplished by two methods: the old way, 
viz., ' dry puddling,' is usually adopted for the iron which 
has been previously refined, the decarburization in this 
case being produced principally by a strong current of 
air rushing through the furnace; the new way, viz., 'wet 
puddling' or ' boiling,' is a process by which the oxidizing 
of the carbon is effected, principally by hematite, magnetic 
ore, basic slags, and other materials that are easily reduci- 
ble, but to some extent by the air also. 

With some slight difference from local and other circum- 
stances, the processes of puddling are in a general way con- 
ducted as follows : A charge of about 500 lbs. of iron, along 
with some hammer cinder and seals of iron, is placed upon 
the bed of the furnace, immediately after the preceding 
charge has been withdrawn. If the furnace is in good 
shape and working well, this charge will be melted in 
about half an hour; it is then subjected to a vigorous stir- 
ring up, with a long bar, by the puddler for a length of 
time until it begins to boil. The appearance of boiling is 
caused by the formation and escape of carbonic oxide, 
which, as it exudes from the mass, forms innumerable jets 
of blue flame all over the top of the molten mass. By 
degrees, as the carbon of the pig iron becomes more and 



WROUGHT OR MALLEABLE IRON. 349 

more oxidized, a separation of the malleable iron takes 
place, in the form of pasty balls; these being worked to- 
gether into masses of about 80 pounds in weight by the 
operator, he at once lowers his damper and opens the door 
of the furnace; these balls are now immediately withdrawn 
and conveyed to the 'squeezer ' or hammer. 

Sltingling is the process immediately following that of 
puddling or boiling, and consists in first passing the balls 
through a revolving-toothed machine, which receives the 
puddled balls, as they are drawn soft from the furnace, 
and compresses or squeezes them till the greater portion 
of the cinder is forced out; or else they are at once 
hammered under the helve or steam-hammer, without 
the preliminary process of squeezing. When the balls 
have undergone the shingling process they receive the 
name of slabs or blooms, and are now ready for passing 
through heavy rollers, which for this purpose are termed 
'forge' or ' puddle-bar ' rolls; this process reduces them 
to the form of flat bars. When it is required to make 
superior grades of iron these flat bars are subsequently cut 
up into short lengths, and are then placed in piles and re- 
heated in a furnace provided for that purpose, and again 
cut, piled, and heated; but this time it is passed through 
the forge rolls, after which it is again passed through the 
' mill-train,' consisting of what are usually termed the 
' bolting ' or ' roughing rolls,' and, finally, through the ' fin- 
ishing' roll*. 

When plates or sheets are to bo made, the rolls are plain ; 
but if bars are required, they are grooved to the form and 
dimensions of the bars required. 

Inferior kinds of fuel can be utilized when the Siemens 
regenerative furnace is employed for puddling and heat- 
ing. 



350 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



STEEL. 

Steel contains carbon in proportions varying from .5 to 
1.8 per cent, and it is this amount of carbon that makes 
the difference between it and wrought or malleable iron. 

Steel resembles cast iron very much in appearance when 
it contains a large percentage of carbon, but we know that 
it does not contain as many impurities. 

By the addition of carbon during the direct reduction of 
pure iron ore either in the furnace or crucible, steel may 
be made; but the lack of uniformity in the production by 
this means is against the general adoption of this method. 
Some of the finest kinds of steel are still made by the process 
of 'Cementation,' which indirect method is to first convert 
the cast into malleable iron, by extracting the carbon from 
the former, and again adding carbon by a process of heat- 
ing in the cementing-furnace after the manner as follows: 
A cementing-furnace is provided with troughs, supported 
beneath the arch of the furnace so that the fire may have 
free access to their whole exterior surfaces. Inside these 
troughs the bar iron is imbedded in charcoal, being ar- 
ranged in tiers, with interposing layers of charcoal, so that 
none of the bars come in contact. After the troughs have 
been filled as described, a last bed of charcoal is finally 
closed over with fire-brick covers or prepared sand, the 
heat is gradually increased within the furnace, by this 
means infusing the solid body of the iron with more or 
less of the carbon contained in the charcoal. The heating 
is kept up for a length of time, according to the quality of 
steelit is desired to. make. \ - _ 

The bars during this operation undergo a very remarka- 
ble change: they lose their toughness and become brittle, 
their whole surface being covered with 'blisters/ supposed 



STEEL. 351 

to be due to the evolution of carbonic oxide arising from 
the combination of carbon with a trace of oxygen existing 
in the iron. It is as important, and perhaps more difficult, 
to rid the iron of its silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur, than 
it is to secure a certain proportion of carbon in the result- 
ant steel. 

Blistered steel, being more or less porous, requires to be 
made close and homogeneous before it can be used for the 
many purposes to which a fine class of steel is necessary. 
One of the methods adopted to effect this object is to con- 
vert the cemented bars into 'shear steel,' by first cutting 
the former into short pieces, heating in the furnace in con- 
venient stacks, which when brought to a welding heat are 
drawn out and worked under the forge hammer. By this 
means the blister steel is converted into a more malleable 
and compact bar, suitable for edge-tools and kindred uses. 
By doubling the single-shear steel upon itself and reheat- 
ing, and again subjecting the same to be hammered and 
drawn, the product is called 'double-shear steel/ 

Cast steel is also made from blister steel, by melting the 
latter in crucibles and casting into ingots. The finest cut- 
ting instruments are made from this product, as it is gen- 
erally considered to be the finest and best class of steel 
made, being more dense than any of the others. 

Steel is largely made now by the process of puddling, 
direct from the pig iron, after the manner of making 
wrought iron. Another process is to granulate the pig 
iron, and add in the crucible oxides of iron, manganese, 
and fire-clay, which when fused together produce cast steel. 

The process of making steel by the Siemens-Martin 
method, is to melt pig iron with a certain proportion of 
wrought-iron and Bessemer-steel scrap, supplementing the 
above by an addition of about 7 per cent of spiegeleisen. 
The Siemens regenerative furnace is used for melting with 
in this instance. ~ ;- ... ...:.....:.j --.;..' ... lo 



352 THE IRON- FO UNDER S UPPLEMENT. 

Bessemer steel is made by driving a blast of air through 
the melted iron, and continuing the operation till by oxida- 
tion all the carbon and silicon originally in the pig iron 
has been burned out, at which point a given amount of 
molten spiegeleisen is added; the latter containing a previ- 
ously ascertained percentage of carbon, permits of steel be- 
ing made by this means with any desired proportion of 
carbon. The spiegeleisen immediately mixes with iron in 
the vessel, and restores its fluidity in a wonderful manner. 

How steel is made by the Bessemer process may be 
summed up as follows: A cupola or reverberatory furnace 
is used for melting the pig iron, which when sufficiently 
liquid is run into the 'converter.' The latter vessel, made 
of wrought iron, is suspended on trunnions, which allow 
it to be turned up by means of hydraulic machinery. The 
lining of these converters is usually fire-brick or ganister, 
and their capacity may be 2 or 12 tons. The seven tuyeres 
at the bottom have each a number of perforations about \ 
inch in diameter. When the converter is in operation the 
blast is forced through these perforated tuyeres at a press- 
ure of about 20 pounds per square inch, which is sufficient 
to keep the molten iron from penetrating them. 

Whilst the air is being blown through the molten iron 
for the purpose of burning away the carbon it contains, 
the mouth of the converter emits showers of sparks, with 
a continuous dazzling flame, until the operation ends. It 
takes about 25 minutes to expel all the carbon. Usually 
this is termed the first blow. The converter is now low- 
ered, with its mouth in position to receive the molten 
spiegeleisen, the quantity of which metal is in proportion 
to the amount of carbon required in the whole heat; an- 
other blow through for a short time, and the whole is thor- 
oughlv mixed, and the mass has become cast steel. 

The ladle for pouring the ingots is attached to the end 
of a long arm connecting with hydraulic machinery in the 



ENAMEL FOR HEAVY CASTINGS. 353 

centre of the casting-pit. The latter pit is generally con- 
trived to command two converters, and the ingot moulds 
are placed around it in range of the ladle as it is swung 
from mould to mould when casting. When the ladle has 
been brought into position under the converter, the latter 
is tilted by machinery and the ladle filled. Then the pro- 
cess is completed by filling the moulds through a hole in 
the bottom of the ladle, controlled by a lever and plug. 

As soon as set, the moulds are removed, and the ingots, 
whilst red-hot, are at once conveyed to the steam-hammer, 
which by repeated heavy blows condenses the steel to the 
required density. 



ENAMEL FOR HEAVY CASTINGS, PIPES, ETC. 

Clean and brighten the iron before applying. The 
enamel consists of two coats, — the body and the glaze. 
The body is made by fusing 100 lbs. of ground flints and 75 
lbs. of borax, and grinding 40 pounds of this frit with 
5 lbs. of potter's clay, in water, till it is brought to the 
consistence of a pap. A coat of this being applied, and 
dried, but not hard, the glaze-powder is sifted over it. 
This consists of 100 lbs. of Cornish stone in fine powder, 
117 lbs. of borax, 35 lbs. of soda-ash, 35 lbs. of nitre, 35 
lbs. of sifted slaked lime, 13 lbs. of white sand, and 50 lbs. 
of pounded white gliiss. These are all fused together; the 
frit obtained is pulverized. Of this powder, 45 lbs. are 
mixed with 1 lb. of soda-ash in hot water, and the mixture 
when dried in a stove is the glaze-powder. After sifting 
this over the body co;it, the cast-iron article is put into a 
stove, kept at a temperature of 212°, to dry it hard, after 
which it is set in a muffle-kiln to fuse it into a glaze. 



354 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

The inside of pipes is enamelled (after being cleaned) 
by pouring the above 'body' composition through them 
while the pipe is being turned around to insure an equal 
coating ; after the body has become set, the glaze-pap is 
poured in in like manner. The pipe is finally fired in the 
kiln. 



BLACK VARNISH FOR IRONWORK. 

Asphaltum, 1 lb.; lampblack, \ lb.; resin, \ lb.; spirits 
of turpentine, 1 quart; linseed-oil, just sufficient to rub up 
the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. Ap- 
ply with a camel's-hair brush. 



{TARNISHES FOR PIPES AND IRONWORK. 

Coal-tar, 30 gallons; tallow, 6 lbs.; resin, \\ lbs.; 
lampblack, 3 lbs.; fresh-slaked lime finely sifted, 30 lbs. 
Stir all thoroughly together, and apply hot. 

ANOTHER. 

Tar-oil, 20 lbs.; asphaltum, 5 lbs.; powdered resin, 
5 lbs. Heat all together in an iron kettle, but be very 
careful to avoid ignition. 



VARNISH FOR PATTERNS. 

Alcohol, 1 gallon; shellac (best), 1 lb.; lamp or ivory 
black, sufficient to cover it. 



MINERAL WOOL, ETC. 355 



CEMENT FOR CAST IRON. 

Clean borings or turnings of cast iron, 16 parts; sal- 
ammoniac, 2 parts; flour of sulphur, 1 part. Mix them 
well together in a mortar, and keep them dry. 

When required for use, take of the mixture, 1 part; 
clean borings, 20 parts. Mix thoroughly and add a sufficient 
quantity of water. A little grindstone dust added improves 
the cement. 



MINERAL WOOL, ETC. 

THE PHENOMENA OF ITS PRODUCTION EXPLAINED. 

The somewhat peculiar and strange phenomena some- 
times noticed when the iron has been nearly all melted 
down in the cupola, and which consists of a fibrous sub- 
stance very much resembling wool, is formed in the cupola 
when the blast impinges on the surface of molten slag 
within, the latter being, by this action, blown into filaments 
of a glassy fibrous nature. 

The manufactured article is used as a non-conductor to 
prevent freezing in water-pipes, etc. The method of 
making it in some of the iron-smelting districts is as fol- 
lows: The pig-iron furnace is provided with a tap an inch 
in diameter, out of which a continual stream of slag is 
allowed to flow, and to fall a distance of 30 inches, at 
which point the falling stream is met by a strong blast of 
cold air, the effect of which is to separate the slag into 
myriads of hair-like threads, as white as snow, resembling 
the finest wool. 



356 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



TO DISTINGUISH WROUGHT AND CAST IRON 
FROM STEEL. 

Elsner produces a bright surface by polishing or filing, 
and applies a drop of nitric acid, which is allowed to 
remain there for one or two minutes and is then washed 
off with water. The spot will then appear a, pale ashy gray 
on wrought iron, a brownish black on steel, and a deep black 
on cast iron. It is the carbon present in various propor- 
tions which produces the different appearances. 



TINNING. 



1st. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a 
solution of xtannate of potassa mixed with turnings of 
tin, become, in the course of a few minutes, covered with a 
firmly attached layer of pure tin. 

2d. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles 
with tin filings and caustic alkali or cream of tartar. In 
the above way chemical vessels made of copper or brass 
may be easily and perfectly tinned. 



NEW TINNING PROCESS. 

The articles to be tinned are first covered with dilute 
sulphuric acid, and when quite clean are placed in warm 
water, then dipped iu a solution of muriatic acid, copper, 
and zinc, and then plunged into a tin bath to which a 



CRYSTALLIZED TIN PLATE. 357 

small quantity of zinc has been added. When the tinning 
is finished the articles are taken out and plunged into 
boiling water. The operation is completed by placing 
them in a very warm sand-bath. This last process softens 
the iron. 



KUSTITIENS METAL FOR TINNING. 

Malleable iron, 1 lb.; heat to whiteness. Add 5 oz. 
regulus of antimony, and Molucca tin, 24 lbs. 



CRYSTALLIZED TIN PLATE. 

Crystallized tin plate is a variegated primrose appear- 
ance, produced upon the surface of tin plate by applying to 
it, in a heated state, some dilute nitro-muriatic acid for a 
few seconds, then washing it with water, drying, and coating 
it with lacquer. The figures are more or less beautiful and 
diversified, according to the degree of heat and relative 
dilution of the acid. 

Place the tin plate, slightly heated, over a tub of water, 
and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a liquor com- 
posed of four parts of aqua fortis and two of distilled water, 
holding one part of common salt or sal-ammoniac in 
solution. Whenever the crystalline spangles seem to be 
thoroughly brought out, the plate must be immersed in 
water, washed either with a feather or a little cotton (tak- 
ing care not to rub off the film of tin that forms the 
feathering), forthwith dried at a low heat, and coated with 
a lacquer varnish; otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. 

If the whole surface is not plunged at once in cold 



358 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

water, but if it be partially cooled by sprinkling water on 
it, the crystallization will be finely variegated with large 
and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by 
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface 
while it is just passing from the fused to the solid state. 



TO TIN IRON POTS AND OTHER DOMESTIC 
ARTICLES. 

The articles are cleaned with sand and, if necessary, 
with acid, and put in a bath prepared with 1 oz cream 
of tartar, 1 oz. tin salt (protochloride of tin), 10 qts. 
of water. This bath must be kept at a temperature of 
190° Fahr., in a stone-ware or wooden tank. Bits of 
metallic zinc are put into and between the different pieces. 
When the coat of tin is considered thick enough, the 
articles are taken out of the fluid, washed with water, and 
dried. 



TO TIN CAST-IRON STUDS AND CHAPLETS. 

Pickle the castings (or studs) in oil of vitriol, then cover 
or immerse them in muriate of zinc (made by putting a 
sufficient quantity of zinc in some spirit of salt); after 
which dip them in a melted bath of tin or solder. 

Wrought chaplets are treated in the same way. 



CASE-HARDENING CAST IRON. 

1st. Cast iron may be case-hardened by heating to a red 
heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed of 



TO SCALE, CLEAN, OR PICKLE CAST IRON. 359 

equal parts of prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac, and salt- 
petre, all pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This must be 
applied to every part of the surface, then plunged, while yet 
hot, into a bath containing 2 oz. prussiate of potash and 4 
oz. sal-ammoniac to each gallon of cold water. 

2d. Salt. 2 lbs.; saltpetre, £ lb.; rock alum, \ lb.; am- 
monia, 4 oz.; salts of tartar, 4 oz. Pulverize all together 
and incorporate thoroughly. Use by powdering all over 
the iron while it is red-hot, then plunging it in cold water. 



TO CHILL CAST IKON VERY HARD. 

Use a liquid made as follows: Soft water, 10 gals.; salt, 
1 peck; oil of vitriol, \ pint; saltpetre, \ lb.; prussiate of 
potash, \ lb.; cyanide of potash, \ lb. Heat the iron a 
cherry-red, and dip as usual; if wanted harder, repeat the 
process. 



TO SOFTEN CAST IRON. 

Steep it in 1 part of aqua fortis to 4 parts of water, and 
let it remain in 24 hours. 



TO SCALE, CLEAN, OR PICKLE CAST IRON. 

Viteiol, 1 part ; water, 2 parts. Mix and lay on with a 
ladle, or cloth tied in the form of a brush, enough to wet 
the surface well; after 8 or 10 hours wash off with water. 



360 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



TO REMOVE RUST FROM CAST OR WROUGHT 

IRON. 

We have never seen any iron so badly scaled or incrnsted 
with oxide that it could not be cleaned with a solution of 
1 part sulphuric acid in 10 parts water. Paradoxical as it 
may seem, strong sulphuric acid will not attack iron with 
anything like the energy of a solution of the s;ime. On 
withdrawing the articles from the acid solution they should 
be dipped in a bath of hot lime-water, and held there till 
they become so heated that they will dry immediately 
when taken out. Then if they are rubbed with dry bran 
or sawdust, there will be an almost chemically clean sur- 
face left, to which zinc will adhere readily. 



TO SCOUR CAST IRON, ZINC, OR BRASS. 

Cast-ikon, zinc, and brass surfaces can be scoured with 
great economy of labor, time, and material by using either 
glycerine, stearine, naphthaline, or creosote, mixed with 
dilute sulphuric acid. 



TO SOLDER GRAY CAST IRON. 

First dip the castings in alcohol, after which sprinkle 
muriate of ammonia (sal-ammoniac) over the surface to be 
soldered. Then hold the casting over a charcoal fire till 
the sal-ammoniac begins to smoke; then dip it into melted 
tin (not solder). This prepares the metal for soldering, 
which can be done in the usual way. 



BRASSING CAST IRON. 361 



TO DEPOSIT COPPER UPON CAST IRON. 

The pieces of cast iron are first placed in a bath made of 
50 parts hydrochloric acid, specific gravity of 1.105, and 1 
part nitric acid; next in a second bath, composed of 10 
parts ii i trio acid, 10 parts of chloride of copper dissolved in 
80 parts of the same hydrochloric acid as just alluded to. 
The objects are rubbed with a woollen rag and soft brush, 
next washed with water, and again immersed until the 
desired thickness of copper is deposited. When it is 
desired to give the appearance of bronze, the copper sur- 
face is rubbed with a mixture of 4 parts sal-ammoniac and 
1 part each of oxalic and acetic acids dissolved in 30 parts 
of water. 



TO BRONZE IRON CASTINGS. 

Iron castings may be bronzed by thorough cleansing and 
subsequent immersion in a solution of sulphate of copper, 
when they acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must 
be then washed in water. 



BRASSING CAST IRON. 

Iron ornaments are covered with copper or brass by 
properly preparing the surface of the castings so as to 
remove all organic matter which would prevent adhesion 
(described elsewhere), and then plunging them into melted 
brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the iron, and it 
admits of being polished or burnished. 



3G2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



GREEN BRONZE ON CASTINGS. 

Coat the surface of the iron (first cleaned by acid and 
well etched) with ferrocyanide of copper applied with lin- 
seed-oil. Before this coating is entirely dry apply bronze 
powder by means of a fine brush, and then polish with a 
burnisher. When the surface is entirely dry, wash and 
etch to the color desired. The use of the alkaline sul- 
phides for the etching produces olive-green and black 
colors, which closely resemble those of the Japanese 
bronzes. 



BRONZE FOR CAST IRON WITHOUT THE USE 
OF METAL OR ALLOY. 

The article is cleansed, coated with a uniform film of 
some vegetable oil, and then is exposed in a furnace to the 
action of a high temperature, which, however, must not be 
strong enough to carbonize the oil. In this way the cast 
iron absorbs oxygen at the moment the oil is decomposed, 
and there is formed at the surface a thin coat of brown 
oxide, which adheres very strongly to the metal, and will 
admit of a high polish, giving it quite the appearance of 
fine bronze. 



TO GALVANIZE GRAY- IRON CASTINGS. 

First cleanse the castings in an ordinary tumbling-barrel 
in the usual manner. When the sand has been all removed. 



JAPANNING CASTINGS. 363 

take them out and heat one by one, plunging, vrhile hot, 
in ;i liquid composed as follows : 10 pounds hydrochloric 
acid, and sufficient sheet zinc to make a saturated solution. 
In making this solution, when the evolution of gas has 
ceased, add muriate or preferably sulphate of ammonia, 1 
pound, and let it stand till dissolved. The castings should 
be so hot that when dipped in this solution and instantly 
removed they will immediately dry, leaving the surface 
crystallized, Lke frostwork on a window-pane. Next 
plunge them while hot and perfectly dry in a bath of 
melted zinc, previously skimming the oxide on the surface 
away, and throwing thereon a small amount of sal-ammo- 
niac. If the articles are very small, enclose them in a 
wrought-iron basket on a pole, and lower them into the 
metal. When this is done, shake off the superfluous metal 
and cast them into a vessel of water to prevent them adher- 
ing when the zinc solidifies. 



TO GALVANIZE CAST IRON THROUGH. 

To 50 lbs. of melted iron add 1 lb. of pulverized pure 
zinc. Scatter the zinc-powder well over the ladle, then 
catch the melted iron (hot), stir it well up with an iron 
rod quickly, and pour at once. 



JAPANNING CASTINGS. 

Clean them well from the sand, then dip them in or 
paint them over with good boiled linseed-oil; when moder- 
ately dry, heat them in an oven to such a temperature as 



364 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

will turn the oil black without burning. The stove should 
not be too hot at first, and the heat should be gradually 
raised to avoid blistering; the slower the change in the oil 
is effected the better will be the result. 

The castings, if smooth at first, will receive a fine black 
and polished surface by this method. 



TO ENAMEL CAST IRON AND HOLLOW WARE. 

1st. Calcined flints, G parts; Cornish stone or compo- 
sition, 2 parts; litharge, 9 parts; borax, 6 parts; argil- 
laceous earth, 1 part; nitre, 1 part; calx of tin, 6 parts; 
purified potash, 1 part. 

2d. Calcined flints, 8 parts; red lead, 8 parts; borax, 6 
parts; calx of tin, 5 parts; nitre, 1 part. 

3d. Potter's composition, 12 parts; borax, 8 parts; white 
lead, 10 parts; nitre, 2 parts; white marble, calcined, 
1 part; purified potash, 2 parts; calx of tin, 5 parts. 

4th. Calcined flints, 4 parts; potter's composition, 1 part; 
nitre, 2 parts; borax, 8 parts; white marble, calcined, 
1 part; argillaceous earth, \ part; calx of tin, 2 parts. 

Whichever of the above compositions is taken must be 
finely powdered, mixed, and fused. When cold the vitreous 
mass is to be ground, sifted, and levigated (rubbed to a fine 
impalpable powder) with water; it is then made into a pap 
with water, or gum-water. 

The pap is smeared or brushed over the surface of the 
articles, dried, and fused with a proper heat in a muffle. 
Clean the articles perfectly before applying the pap. 



USEFUL INTEREST RULES. 365 



USEFUL INTEREST KULES. 

For finding the interest on any principal for any num- 
ber of days. The answer in each case being in cents, 
separate the two right-hand figures of the answer to 
express it in dollars and cents. 

Five per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, and 
divide by 72. 

Six per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, separate 
the right-hand figure, and divide by 6. 

Eight per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, and 
divide by 45. 

Nine per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, sep- 
arate the right-hand figure, and divide by 4. 

Ten per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, and 
divide by 35. 

Twelve per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, 
separate the right-hand figure, and divide by 3. 

Fifteen per cent. — Multiply by the number of days, 
and divide by 24. 

Eighteen per cent— Multiply by the number of days, 
separate the right-hand figure, and divide by 2. 

Twenty per cent.— Multiply by the number of days, 
and divide by 18. 



366 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



INTEREST TABLE, 

At Six Per Cent, in Dollars and Cents, from One 
Dollar to Ten Thousand. 





1 day. 


7 days. 


15 days, 


1 month. 


3 months. 
$ c 


6 months. 


12 mos. 


$ 


$ c 


$ c 


$ c 


$ c 


$ c 


$ c 


1 


00 


oo 


00} 


oo} 


01} 


03 


06 


o 


00 


00* 


00} 


01 


03 


06 


12 


3 


00 


00} 


00} 


01} 


04} 


09 


18 


4 


00 


oo.} 


01 


02 


06 


12 


24 


5 


oo 


00} 


01} 


02} 


o;} 


15 


30 


C 


00 


00} 


01} 


03 


09 


18 


36 


7 


00 


00} 


01} 


03} 


10} 


21 


42 


8 


00 


01 


02 


04 


la 


24 


48 


9 


00 


01 


0.!} 


04} 


13} 


27 


54 


10 


00 


01} 


02} 


05 


15' 


30 


00 


20 


00} 


02} 


05 


10 


30 


00 


1 20 


30 


00} 


03} 


07} 


15 


45 


90 


1 80 


40 


00} 


04} 


10 


20 


60 


1 20 


2 40 


50 


01 


06 


12* 


25 


75 


1 50 


3 00 


100 


01} 


11} 


25 


50 


1 50 


3 00 


6 00 


200 


03 


23} 


50 


1 00 


3 00 


6 00 


12 00 


300 


05 


35' 


75 


1 50 


4 50 


9 00 


18 00 


400 


07 


46} 


1 00 


2 00 


6 00 


12 00 


24 00 


500 


08 


58} 


1 25 


2 50 


7 50 


15 00 


30 00 


1,000 


17 


1 16} 


2 50 


5 00 


15 00 


30 00 


60 00 


2.000 


33 


2 33} 


5 00 


10 00 


30 00 


00 00 


120 00 


3.000 


50 


3 50 


7 50 


15 00 


45 00 


90 00 


180 00 


4.000 


67 


4 OO} 


10 00 


20 00 


60 00 


120 00 


2-W 00 


5.000 


83 


5 83} 


1 i 50 


25 00 


75 00 


150 00 


300 00 


10,000 


1 07 


11 66} 


25 00 


50 00 


150 00 


300 00 


600 00 



At Seven Per Cent, in Dollars and Cents, from One Dollar to Ten 
Thousand. 



1 


00 


00 


00} 


00} 


01} 


03} 


07 


2 


00 


00} 


00} 


01} 


03} 


07 


14 


3 


00 


00} 


00} 


01} 


05} 


10} 


21 


4 


00 


00} 


01 


02} 


07 


14 


28 


5 


00 


00} 


01} 


03 


08} 


m 


35 


6 


00 


00} 


01} 


03} 


10} 


21 


42 


7 


00 


01 


02 


04 


12} 


24} 


49 


8 


00 


01 


02} 


04§ 


14 


28 


56 


9 


00 


01} 


02* 


o:.} 


1">J 


31} 


63 


10 


00} 


01} 


03 


05} 


m 


35 


70 


20 


ooj 


02} 


06 


li! 


35 


70 


1 40 


30 


00} 


04 


09 


17} 


52} 


1 05 


2 10 


40 


00} 


05} 


12 


23J 


70 


1 40 


2 80 


50 


01 


06} 


15 


29} 


87} 


1 75 


3 50 


100 


02 


13} 


29 


58J 


1 75 


3 50 


7 00 


200 


04 


27} 


58 


i n;§ 


3 50 


7 00 


14 00 


300 


06 


40} 


87} 


1 75 


5 25 


10 50 


21 00 


400 


08 


54} 


1 17 


2 33} 


7 00 


14 00 


28 00 


500 


10 


f-8 


1 46 


2 913 


8 75 


17 50 


35 00 


1,000 


19} 


1 36 


2 92 


5 83} 


17 50 


35 00 


70 00 


2.000 


39 


2 72} 


5 83 


11 661 


35 00 


70 00 


140 00 


3.000 


58 


4 08} 


8 75 


17 50 


52 50 


105 (ID 


210 CO 


4.000 


78 


5 44} 


11 07 


23 33} 


70 00 


140 00 


280 00 


5.000 


97 


6 80} 


14 58 


29 105 


87 50 


175 00 


350 00 


10,000 


1 94 


13 61 


29 17 


58 S3 


175 00 


350 00 


700 00 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 367 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



MEASUKES OF LENGTH. 


4 In. make 1 Hand. 


7.92 In. 


tt 


1 Link. 


18 In. 


a 


1 Cubit. 


12 In. 


a 


1 Foot. 


6 Ft. 


(C 


1 Fathom. 


3 Ft. 


(C 


1 Yard. 


5|Yds. 


a 


1 Rod or Pole. 


40 Poles 


et 


1 Furlong. 


8 Fur. 


a 


1 Mile. 


69 T V Miles 


a 


1 Degree. 



60 Geographical Miles make 1 Degree. 

SCRIPTURE LENGTHS. 

The great Cubit was 21.888 in. = 1.824 ft., and the less 
18 in. A Span the longer = \ a cubit == 10.944 in. — .912 
ft. A Span the less = \ of a cubit = 7.296 in. = COS ft. 
A Hand's Breadth = £ of a cubit = 3.684 in. = .304 ft. A 
Finger's Breadth — 1.24 of a cubit = .912 in. = .076 ft. A 
Fathom = 4 cubits = 7.296 ft. Ezekiel's Reed = 6 cubits 
= 10.944 ft. The Mile = 4000 cubits = 7296 ft. The 
Stadium, T V of their mile = 400 cubits = 729.6 ft. The 
Parasang, 3 of their miles = 12,000 cubits, or 4 English 
miles and 580 ft. 33.164 miles was a day's journey— some 
say 24 miles; and 3500 ft. a Sabbath day's journey — some 
authorities say 3648 ft. 



LIQUID MEASURE. 



4 Gills make 1 Pint. 
2 Pints " 1 Quart. 
4 Quarts » 1 Gallon. 



2 Gals, make 1 Peck. 
31£ Gals. " 1 Barrel. 
54 Gals. " 1 Hhd. 



368 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 

SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

The Chomer or Homer in King James' translation was 
75.625 gals, liquid, and 32.125 peeks dry. The Ephah or 
Bath was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 in. sol. The Seah, 4 of ephah, 
2 gals. 4 pts., 3 in. sol. The Hin = £ of ephah, 1 gal., 2 
pts., 1 in. sol. The Omer = ^ of ephah, 5 pts., 0.5 in. sol. 
The Cab = ^ of ephah, 3 pts. 10 in. sol. The Log = 7,V 
of ephah, \ pt., 10 in. sol. The Metretes of Syria (John ii. 
6) = Cong. Rom. 7£ pts. The Cotyla Eastern = T ^ F of 
ephah, £ pt. 3 in. sol. This cotyia contains just 10 oz. 
Avoirdupois of rain-water. Omer, 100; Ephah, 1000; Cho- 
mer or Homer, 10,000. 

MEASURES OF SURFACE. 

144 Square Inches make 1 Square Foot. 



9 Square Feet 

30| Square Yards 

40 Square Rods 

4 Square Roods 

10 Square Chains 

640 Square Acres 



1 Square Yard. 

1 Rod, Perch, or Pole. 

1 Square Rood. 

1 Square Acre, or 43,560 sq. ft. 

1 Square Acre. 

1 Square Mile. 



Gunter's Chain equal to 22 Yards or 100 Links. 

GUTTER'S CHAIN", ETC. 

7.92 inches constitute 1 link; 100 links one chain, 4 rods 
or poles, or 66 feet, and 80 chains 1 mile. A square chain 
is 16 square poles, and 10 square chains are 1 acre. Four 
roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 
34,785 yards, or 84 yards 28 inches each side. 

Forty poles of 30.25 square yards each is a rood, and a 
pole is 5| yards each way. 

An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yds. 1 ft. 8£ in. 
each way; and 2 acres, or 9080 square yards, are 98 yds. 1 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 369 

ft. 2 in. each way; and 3 acres are 120 J yds. each way. A 
sauare mile, or a U. S. section of land, is 640 acres; being 
10G0 yds. each way; half a mile, or 880 yds. each way, is 
160 acres; a quarter of a mile, or 440 yds. each way, is a 
park or farm of 40 acres; and a furlong, or 220 yds. each 
way, 10 acres. 

Any length or breadth in yards which, multiplied, makes 
4840, is an acre; any which makes 12.10 is a rood, and 30.25 
is a pole. 

An English acre is a square of nearly 70 yds. each way; 
a Scotch, of 77£ yds.; and an Irish, of 88| yds. 

MEASURES OF SOLIDITY. 

1728 Cubic Inches make 1 Cubic Foot. 
27 Cubic Feet " 1 Cubic Yard. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

27||- Grains make 1 Drachm (dr.) or 27|£ Grains. 
16 Drachms " 1 Ounce (oz.) or 437£ " 

16 Ounces " 1 Pound (lb.) or 7000 
28 Pounds " 1 Quarter (qr.). 

4 Quarters " 1 Hundred-weight (cwt.). 
20 Cvvts. " 1 Ton. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight, or 24 Grains. 
20 Penuyw'ts " 1 Ounce, or 480 " 

12 Ounces " 1 Pound, or 5760 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 



20 Grains make 1 Scruple. 
3 Scruples " 1 Drachm. 



8 Drachms make 1 Ounce. 
12 Ounces " 1 Pound. 



45 Drops = 1 teaspoonful, or a fluid Drachm; 
2 tablesnoonfuls = 1 oz. 



370 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



DRY MEASURE. 

8 Quarts make 1 Peck. 

4 Pecks " 1 Bushel. 

8 Bushels " 1 Quarter. 
36 Bushels " 1 Chaldron. 
1 Bushel equal to 2815|- cu. in. nearly. 
A bushel of Wheat is on an average 60 lbs.; Barley or 
Buckwheat, 46 lbs. ; Indian Corn or Eye, 56 lbs.; Oats, 30 
lbs.; Salt, TO lbs. 14 lbs. of Lead or Iron make 1 Stone; 
21£ stone, 1 Pig. 1 Bbl. of Flour contains 196 lbs.; Beef 
or Pork, 200 lbs. The Imperial Gallon is 10 lbs. avoirdu- 
pois of pure water; the Pint. 1\ lbs. 1 gal. Sperm Oil 
weighs 7i lbs.; 1 gal. of Whale Oil, 7 lbs. 11 oz.; 1 gal. of 
Linseed, 7| lbs.; 1 gal. of Olive, 74 lbs.; 1 gal. of Spirits 
of Turpentine, 7 lbs. 5 oz. Proof-spirits, 7 lbs. 15 oz.; 1 
gal. of Ale, 10.5 lbs. 



Millemetre 
Centimetre 
Decimetre 
Metre . . 



Decametre 

Hec:itometre 

Chiliometre 



Myriometre 

An inch = 
ft. = 305 met 



FRENCH MEASURES. 
MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

English Inches. 

.039371. 
.39371. 
3.9371. 
39.371, or 3.281 ft., or 1.09364 yds., 
or nearly 1 yd., \\ nail, or 
443.2959 French lines, or 
.513074 toises. 
393.71, or 10 yds., 2 ft., 97 inches. 
. 3937.1, or 100 yds., 1 ft., 1 in. 
. 39371, or 4 fur., 213 yds., 1 ft., 10.2 in.; 
so that 1 chiliometre is nearly 
f of a mile. 
. . 393710, or 6 miles, 1 fur., 136 yds., 6 in. 
.0354 metres; 2441 in. = 62 metres; 10,000 
res nearly. 



FRENCH MEASURES. 371 

SUPERFICIAL OR SQUARE MEASURE. 

Are— a square decametre 3.95 English perches, of 119.6046 

sq. yds. 
Decare .... 1196.0460 sq. yds. 
Hecatare . . . 11960.46 sq. yds., or 2 acres, 1 rood, 

35.4 perches. 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
Cubic Iuches. English. 

Millilitre .06103. 

Centilitre .... .61028. 

Decilitre 6.1028. 

Litre, a cubic decimetre 61.028, or 2.113 wine pints. 

Decalitre 610.28, or 2.64 wine gals. 

Hecatolitre . . . . 6102.8, or 3.5317 cu. ft., or 26.4 

wine gals. 
Chiliolitre .... 61028, or 35.3170 cu. ft., or 1 tun, 

12 wine gals. 
Myriolitre .... 610280, or 353.1700 cu. ft. 

SOLID MEASURE. 

Cubic Feet, English. 

Decistre for fire-wood 3.53 L7. 

Stere, a cubic metre 35.3170. 

Decastre 353.1700. 

In order to express decimal proportions in this new os- 
tein, the following terms have been adopted: The term 
deca prefixed denotes 10 times; lieca, 100 times; cJtih'o, 1000 
times; and myrio, 10,000 times. On the other hand, dcci 
expresses the 10th part; cent), the 100th part; and milli, the 
1000th part, — so that decametre signifies 10 metres, and 
decimetre the 10th part of a metre, etc., etc. The metre is 
the element of long measures; are, that of square measure?; 
stere, that of solid measures; the litre is the element of all 
measures of capacity; and the gramme, which is the weight 
of a cubic centimetre of distilled water, is the element for 
all weights. 



372 



THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. 



TABLE OF THE AREAS OF CIRCLES AND OF THE 
SIDES OF SQUARES OF THE SAME AREA. 



Pia'T). of 


Area of 


Sides of Sq. 


Ilium, of 


Area, of 


Sides of Sq. 


Circle ii 


Circle in 


of si me Area 


Circle in 


Circle in 


of same Area 


Indies. 


Sq. In. 


in Sq. In 


Inches. 


Sq. In. 


in Sq. In. 


1 


.785 


.89 


31 


751.77 


27.47 


4 


1.767 


1.33 


4 


779.31 


27.92 


2 


3.1 12 


1.77 


32 


804.25 


28.36 


4 


4.9i»9 


2.22 


i 


829.58 


2H.R0 


3 


7 0(59 


2.06 


33 


855 30 


29 25 


4 


9 oil 


3.10 


1 


881. 41 


29.i;9 


4 


12 566 


3 54 


34 


907 9-2 


30.13 


1 


15.904 


3.99 


4 


931.82 


30 57 


5 


19.615 


4 43 


35 


902.11 


31.03 


4 


23.758 


4.87 


i 


9-9 80 


31 46 


6 


2S -271 


5.32 


3G 


1017.88 


31.90 


* 


31.181 


5.76 


4 


1046 35 


3> 35 


7" 


33.485 


6.20 


37 


1075.21 


32 79 


i 


44.179 


6 65 


4 


1 104 47 


83.23 


8 


50.266 


7.(19 


38 


1134.12 


33.68 


i 


5(5.745 


7 53 


4 


2164.16 


34 12 


9" 


63 617 


7.98 


39 


1194.59 


31.56 


4 


70 . 8(12 


8.42 


4 


1225.42 


35.01 


10 


78.540 


8.86 


40 


1250.64 


35.45 


* 


86.590 


9.30 


4 


1288.25 


35.89 


11 


95 03 


9.75 


41 


1320.36 


36.34 


4 


103.87 


10.19 


4 


1352 66 


30.78 


13 


113.10 


10 63 


42 


1385 45 


37 22 


i 


122.72 


11 08 


4 


1418. G3 


37 66 


13 


132.73 


11.52 


43 


1452.20 


38.11 


4 


113.11 


11.96 


4 


14815.17 


38.55 


14 


153.9+ 


12.41 


44" 


1520.53 


3-1.99 


k 


165 13 


12.85 


4 


1555 29 


39.44 


15 


176.72 


13.29 


45 


1590.43 


39.88 


i 


188.69 


13.74 


4 


1625.97 


40.32 


16 


201.06 


14 18 


46 


1661.91 


40 77 


* 


213.83 


14.62 


4 


169S.23 


41 21 


17 


226.93 


15 07 


47 


1731.95 


41.65 


i 


210.53 


15 51 


4 


1772.06 


42 10 


18 


254.47 


15 95 


48 


1809.56 


42.58 


i 


26<.80 


16.40 


4 


1847.46 


42.98 


19 


283.53 


Hi. 84 


49" 


1885.75 


43.43 


4 


2' iH 65 


17.28 


i 


1924 43 


43. K7 


20 


311.16 


17 72 


50 


19G3.50 


44.31 


4 


330 06 


IS. 17 


4 


2002.97 


41.75 


■ 21 


346 36 


18.61 


51 


2042.83 


45.20 


4 


3(>3 05 


19.05 


4 


2083 08 


45 (14 


22 


380.13 


19.50 


52 


2123.72 


40. OS 


4 


397.61 


19 94 


4 


2161.76 


40.53 


23 


415.48 


20.38 


53 


2206.19 


41'.. 97 


4 


433.74 


20. S3 


4 


2218.01 


47.41 


24 


452 39 


21.27 


54 


2290.23 


47.86 


i 


471 44 


21.71 


_4 


2332.83 


48 30 


2.1 


4f0 S8 


22.16 


55 


23;." 83 


48.74 


i 


510 71 


22 60 


i 


2419.23 


49 19 


2G 


530.93 


23.01 


56 


2463.01 


49.63 


i 


551.55 


23 49 


i 


2507.19 


50.07 


27 


5:2 56 


23.93 


57 


2551.76 


50.51 


J 


503.90 


24.37 


4 


2596.73 


50.96 


28 


615.75 


24.81 


58' 


2642 09 


51.40 


4 


637.91 


25.26 


4 


2687.81 


51.84 


29 


660 52 


25.70 


59 


2733.98 


52.29 


4" 


• 683 49 


80.14 


* • 


• 2780 51 


52.73 


30 


706.86 


26.59 


60 


2827 74 


53.17 


i 


730.62 


27.03 


4 . 


2874.76 


53! 62 



WAQE8 TABLE. 



373 



WAGES TABLE. 
Salaries and Wages by the Year, Month, Week, or Day, 
showing what any sum from $20 to $1600 per annum 
is per Month, Week, or Day. 



Per Year 


Per 
Month. 


Per 

Week. 


Per 
Day. 


i Per Year. 


Per 

Month. 


Per 

Week. 


Per 
Day. 


$ 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ 


$ c. 


$ c. 


$ c. 


20 is 


1.67 


.38 


.05 


280 is 


23.33 


5.37 


.77 


25 


2.08 


.48 


.07 


285 


23.75 


5.47 


.78 


30 


2.50 


.58 


.08 


290 


24 17 


5.56 


.79 


85 


2.92 


.67 


.10 


295 


24.58 


5 66 


.81 


40 


3.33 


77 


.11 


300 


25 00 


5.75 


.82 


45 


3.75 


M 


.12 


310 


25.83 


5.95 


.85 


50 


4.17 


.96 


.14 


320 


26.67 


6.14 


.88 


55 


4 58 


1.06 


.15 


325 


27.08 


6.23 


89 


eo 


5.00 


1.15 


.16 


330 


27.50 


6.3) 


.90 


65 


5.42 


1.25 


.18 


340 


28.33 


6 52 


.93 


70 


5 83 


1 31 


.19 


350 


29.17 


6.71 


.96 


75 


6 25 


1.44 


.21 


360 


30.00 


6. 90 


.93 


80 


C.07 


1.53 


.22 


370 


30 S3 


7.10 


1.01 


85 


7.08 


1.63 


.23 


375 


31.25 


7.19 


1.03 


90 


7.50 


1.73 


.25 


380 


31.67 


7.29 


1.04 


95 


7.92 


1.82 


.26 


390 


32.50 


7.48 


1.07 


100 


8.33 


1.92 


.27 


400 


33.33 


7. 67 


1.10 


105 


8.75 


2.01 


.29 


425 


35 42 


8.15 


1.16 


110 


9.17 


2 11 


.30 


450 


37.50 


8.(,3 


1.23 


115 


9.58 


2.21 


.32 


475 


39.58 


9.11 


1.30 


120 


10.00 


2 30 


.33 


500 


41.67 


9 59 


1.37 


125 


10.42 


2 40 


.34 


525 


43 75 


10.07 


1 44 


130 


10.83 


2.49 


.36 


550 


45 83 


10.55 


1.51 


135 


11 25 


2.59 


.37 


575 


47.92 


11.03 


1.58 


140 


11.67 


2.69 


.38 


600 


50 00 


11 51 


1.64 


145 


12.08 


2 78 


.40 


625 


52.08 


11 99 


1 71 


150 


12.50 


2 88 


.41 


650 


54 17 


12 47 


1 78 


155 


12.92 


2 97 


.42 


675 


56.25 


12 95 


1.85 


160 


13.33 


3.07 


.44 


700 


58.33 


13.42 


1 92 


165 


13 75 


3.16 


.45 


725 


60.42 


13.90 


1 99 


170 


14.17 


3.26 


.47 


750 


62 50 


11 38 


2.05 


175 


14.58 


3.36 


.48 


775 


64.58 


14.86 


2.12 


180 


15.00 


3.45 


.49 


8U0 


66.67 


15 34 


2.19 


185 


15 42 


3 55 


.51 


825 


68.75 


15.82 


2.26 


190 


15.83 


3.64 


.52 


850 


70. 83 


16.30 


2.33 


195 


IB. 25 


3 74 


.53 


875 


72.92 


16 78 


2.40 


200 


16 57 


3.81 


.55 


900 


75 00 


17 26 


2 47 


205 


17.08 


3.93 


.56 


925 


77.08 


17.74 


2 53 


210 


17 50 


4.03 


.58 


950 


79.17 


18 22 


2 60 


215 


17.92 


4.12 


.59 


975 


81.25 


18.70 


2 67 


220 


18 33 


4.22 


.60 


1000 


83.33 


19 18 


2.74 


225 


18.75 


4.31 


.62 


1050 


87 50 


20.14 


2 88 


230 


19.17 


4.41 


.63 


1100 


91.67 


21.10 


3 01 


235 


19.58 


4.51 


.64 


1150 


95 83 


22 06 


3.15 


240 


20.00 


4.60 


.60 


1200 


100 00 


23 01 


3.29 


245 


20.42 


4.70 


.67 


1250 


104.17 


23.29 


3 4.' 


250 


20.83 


4 79 


.60 


1300 


108.33 


24.93 


3.56 


2:>5 


21 25 


4.89 


.70 


1350 


112.50 


25.80 


3 70 


200 


21.67 


4 99 


.71 


1400 


110.67 


26.85 


3.84 


265 


22.08 


5.08 


.73 


1450 


120 84 


27.80 


3.98 


270 


2.'. 50 


5.18 


.74 


1500 


125 00 


28 77 


4.11 


275 


22.92 


5.27 


.75 


1600 


133.34 


30.68 


4.38 



Note. — If the desired sum i< nor in the table, double some number; for in- 
stance, if the salary or wages is $J0U0, double the sums opposite $1000^ and so 
on with the rest. 



INDEX. 



A 

PAGE 

Addition and subtraction of decimals 85 

Air-furuuces, Low to construct r 57 

Alcohol and oils as fuel , . 325 

Anchors, when aud bow to use 198 

Ancients, fouuding of statues by the 261 

Annealing, English methods of 304 

Annealing, explanation of 317, 328 

Annealing-furnaces, capacity of 306 

Auuealiug, packing the boxes, or " saggers," for 304, 305 

Authracite coal 53, 326 

Antique bronze of the Townley Venus 272 

Autiquity of working in brass and iron 1, 261, 270 

Apothecaries' weight 369 

Appliances for foundries 126 

Arbors and loose wings for long dry sand-cores 230 

Area of circles and sides of squares of the same area. . • 372 

Art work of the Hebrews, Babylonians, Ninevites, and 

Assyrians 269 

Avoirdupois weight 369 



Basin, pouring 1 82, 186, 255 

Beams, advisibility of making wrought iron 165 

Beams and crosses, description of , 159 

Beam and slings for reversing copes 161, 165 

375 



376 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Beam hooks 163, 165 

Beam or cross bar, bow to set tbe binding 208 

Beams, some information about 344 

Bedding in, methods of ~22 

Bed-forming, improved method of 223 

Bed fuel in cupola - 44 

Bed sweep, " rolling over " substituted by the 219 

Bellows 13 

Berlin hue cast-iron work 295 

Bessemer converter described 352 

Bessemer steel, the prodcclion of. 352 

Big castings in little foundries 250 

Blakeuey cupola 48 

Blast 13 

Blast, ancient methods of producing 5 

Blast-furnaces, examples of early 36 

Blast- pressure, explanation of 50 

Blister-steel, the production of 350 

Block and plate moulding 146 

Blooms and slabs 319 

Blowers and blowing engines 13, 31 

Blowers, some primitive 127 

Blowing-engines', the first steam 6 

Boiling the metal in the rcverberatory furnace 66 

Brains versus muscle 2i]3 

Brassing irou castings L>Cl 

Brass. Scripture evidence of working in 1 

Brick cores, importance of open aud well-cindered joints in. . . . 226 

Bronze age, the 261,263 

Bronzing cast irou without metal or alloy.. 362 

Bronzing iron castings 361, 362 

Block and plate moulding 146 

Buckle chains, instructions for making 164 

Burning, arguments for and against 329 

Burning, a suitable ladle for 3;i5 

Burning, illustrations of and instructions for 335 

Burning in closed moulds 341 

Burning, setting cores for 3o8 

Burning rolls, instructions for 343 

Byazntium, the art school of 266 



INDEX. 377 



C 

PAGE 

Can books, how to lift flasks with 164 

Can hooks, how to lift loam rings with 163 

Capacity of ladles, to tiucl the 105, 107 

Carbon, graphitic and combined 315 

Carving, model Hug a cheap substitute for 289 

Car wheels, chilled 307 

Case-hardening cast iron 358 

Casting, development of the art of 270 

Castings, hidden faults in 172 

Castings in iron, who made the first 3 

Castings, theory of chilling , 315 

Castings, weight and measurement of 81 

Cast iron, case-hardening 297 

Cast iron, decarbonizing. ... 296 

Cast iron, English patent (1514) granted for making 3 

Cast-iron mixtures 22, 315 

Cast-iron pipes 9 

Cast iron, sofieniug and hardening elements in 27 

Cast iron statuary, who first made 2 

Cast iron, to chill 359 

Cast iron, the ancients unacquainted with the uses of 2 

Cast iron , to pickle 359 

Cast iron, to soften 359 

Cast iron, Turner's theory on 25 

Casts in metal from an animal, insect or vegetable, to take 285 

Casts in plaster, the art of taking 283 

Cast steel, the production of 351 

Catalan forge 13 

Catalan furnace, the 36 

Cementation , making steel by, 350 

Cement for cast iron 335 

Change hook, how to make a 166 

Change-wheel gear moulding machine, description of 143 

Chains, description of. 16, 159 

Chains, four-legged 165 

Chains, how to make common 167 

Chains, importance of having the best 167 

Chain-slings, how to make 162, 163, 166 



378 INDEX. 

PAQS 

Chains, three legged 165 

Chains, important to have large intervening links in 167 

Chaplet bars, improved 215 

Chaplet blocks, wood and iron 211 

Cbaplets fast to cores, how to make 209 

Chaplets, how to make and use 198 

Charcoal iron, characteristics of 26 

Charging the cupola 45, 54 

Chemical analysis, determining mixtures by 10, 12 

Chemical analysis, mixing cast-iron b} r 24, 26 

Chemist, metallurgical. 24 

Chemistry in the foundry 10, 12, 24, 315 

Chill cast-iron very hard, to 359 

Chilled car-wheels, annealing of 317 

Chilled car-wheels, annealing-pits or ovens for 318 

Chilled car-wheels, core-box for 309 

Chilled car-wheels, flasks for 310 

Chilled car-wheels, how to make 307 

Chilled car-wheels, mixing iron for 316 

Chilled car-wheel, mould view of a 311 

Chilled car wheels, patterns for 308 

Chilled car-wheels, testing 321 

Chilled castings, instructions for annealing 318 

Chills for car-whet.s, description of 313 

Chimney length of air-furnace 60 

Chinese blowing engine 15 

Cinder lieds, the use of 222 

Circle, to find the area of the 102 

Circle to find the circumference and diameter of the 101 

Cire Perdue, or lost wax process, production of brouze statuary 

by the 2, 267, 270, 275 

Cleansing mills, exhaust 9 

Clamps, moulders 139 

Clay thickness for statuary moulds 281 

Clean moulds ignorantly destroyed 170 

Cleansing mill 137 

Coal, different kinds of 326 

Coke, properties and uses of . 326 

Cold-shuts, what produces 179 

Colebrookdale Foundry, an account of 4 



INDEX. 379 

PAGE 

Collian cupola furnace 49 

Colored casts in isinglass 288 

Combined carbon in cast -iron 28, 315 

Combustion, science of 50 

Comparison of loam and green-sand 236 

Conveyers for hauling material 9, 132, 234 

Copper on cast-iron, to deposit 361 

Core-barrel, description of 257 

Core-barrels, loose gudgeon for 257 

Core-boxes, cheap and simply made 221 

Core cement for bronze castings 274, 281, 286 

Core irons for cores of statue moulds 271 

Cores for statues, how to make . .., 271 

Cores, how l o effectually unite ponderous 221, 226 

Cores, lifting out green-sand lathe-bed 238 

Cores, systems of dividing 220 

Cottar-pins for chill flasks 310 

Covering-plate, passing studs through the 214 

Covering-plate, studs cast on 214 

Crane-ladles, dimensions for. 76 

Crane-ladles, how to line up 77 

Cranes, description of various 128 

Cranes, electric and pneumatic , 234 

Cranes, improvements in 8 

Crooked castings, a prime cause for 179 

Cross or four-armed beam, to make a 1G1 

Crushing-strength of metals and other substances 120, 124 

Crystallized tin plate 357 

Cupola, a common 39 

Cupola charging, direct methods for 9 

Cupola, depth of bottom of 44 

Cupola, first charge of iron in. . . , 45 

Cupola, height of 41 

Cupola, location of , 39 

Cupola-man, importance of a good 33, 54 

Cupola scaffold, improved methods of conveying material to the 9 

Cupola, table of particulars for 42, 43 

Cupola, tuyeres for 46 

Cupola with drop bottom 37 

Cupola with solid foundation 37 



380 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Cupolas, fuel for 52, 326 

Cupoliis, lining and repairing 53 

Cupolas, melting capacity of 41 

Cupolas, some patent 48 

Cupolas, total melting capacity of 51 

Cylinders cast horizontally, to obtain clean 186 

D 

Dam, how to preserve hot metal in a 74 

Dam, shutters for a 73 

Dam, to construct a large 72 

Dams, collecting large quantities of iron in 68 

Dams for spray-runners 187 

Decarbonization, time required for 306 

Decimal fractions, how to perform 83 

Deep lifts in greeu-saud moulding 249 

Depth of bot torn of cupola 44 

Diagrams illustrating the flow of molten iron in moulds 178 

Dirty runners, effect of 170, 187 

Division of decimals 88 

Division of labor, deterioration of skill caused by the 10 

Double-hoop iron stud, to make a 204 

Double sealings, method of 199 

Double shear-steel 351 

Draw-backs carried on flasks 249 

Drawbacks, hinges applied to 243 

Draw-backs, how to coustruct 242 

Drawbacks, how to save digging around 243 

Drawing air, the cause of, and how to prevent 182 

Draw-runners, examples of 184 

Drop-runners, a description of 185 

Dry measure 370 

Dry -sand cores, how to suspend long ... 230, 253 

Dry-sand cores, some difficult 230 

E 

Education, importance of sound 235 

Egyptian bronze, mixture for 282 



INDEX. 381 

PAOE 

Elastic moulds, preparation for 288 

Elect ric cranes 128, 234 

Electric system of melting cast iron 12 

Elevators for cupola scaffolds 132 

Enamel for castings 353, 364 

Engine and machine foundations, to mould 237 

Equal distribution of irou in the mould, bow to obtain an. . 180, 182 

Evans's sand-riddle 136 

Evolution of the iron founder's art 1, 261 

Exhaust tumbling-barrel 137 

Experiments in burning not always successful 329, 332 

Eyes for rope tackle 169 

F 

False cores, bow to manipulate 278 

Fan blowers 15, 17 

Feeding by pressure explained 1 96 

Feeding castings 170, 194 

Feeding castings, reasons for 194 

Feeding, use of the riser in 196 

Finished surfaces, how to obtain cleau 237 

Fire-brick, how to judge 322 

Fireclay and fire-bricks 321 

Flask-drawback, how to make ;ind use a 249 

Flasks for statue moulding 278 

Flowing off, head pressure 170, 182 

Flow-off gate, how to form a 182 

Fluxing the charges, instructions for 52 

Foremen, demand for superior 10 

Forge or puddle-bar rolls «. 349 

Former, an ingenious bed 219 

Foundation-plate and cope-rings 254 

Foundation plate, studs built ou 214 

Foundations for cores 206 

Foundations, importance of good 223 

Founders, old time itinerant 4 

Founding, explanation of the term 1, 22 

Founding not sufficiently recognized in our schools of tech. 
uology 11 



382 TNDEX. 

PAGE 

Founding, students needed in the art of 236 

Foundries, comparison of large and small 251 

Foundries, graduates from large 250 

Foundry appliances 126 

Foundry arithmetic , 81 

Foundry cupolas 34 

Foundry equipment, improvements in 8 

Foundry proprietors, ambition of ". 250, 300 

Fountain runners 176, 181 

Fracture, imperfect running one cause of 179 

Fracture, unreliability of judging iron by the 25 

French measures 370 

French sculpture 268, 281 

Friction in the mould during pouring, how to avoid .♦. . . 181 

Fuel for cupolas 52, 326 

Fuel, nature and value of different kinds of 325 



G 

Galvanizing gray iron castings 362, 363 

Gaunister, explaining the nature and uses of 323 

Gale cutters, improper use of 170, 171 

Gate cutting, faulty 170 

Gates, how to form clean 171 

Geared ladles 9, 76 

Gear moulding by machinery, history of 142 

Gear moulding machines 9 

German sculpture 268 

Girders for flasks 215 

Governor-balls, science of running cleau 188 

Graphitic carbon in cast iron 28, 315 

Graphite or plumbago, the nature and uses of 324 

Grate or grid, the utility of the 247 

Gray foundry irons 31, 315 

Grecian bronze, mixture for . . . 282 

Greek bronze statuary, superiority of 269 

Green bronze on castings 362 

Green-sand and loam work compared 236 

Green-sand copes, supporting cores in 211 

Green-sand cores, how to make and handle very narrow. . 240, 244 



INDEX. 383 

page: 

Green-sand moulds, anchoring cores in 210 

Green -sand moulds, the art of dividing 236 

Green-sand moulds, to carry large areas of projecting sand in.. . 245 
Gunther's chain 368 



Handling material 159 

Handy contrivances for wedging studs and chaplets 215 

Hay rope, machines for spinning 9, UO 

Heat waste in cupolas, preventing 11 

Heavy cores, supporting 258 

Height of cupola 41 

Herbertz's steam-jet cupola 21 

High-class moulding. 216 

Hiiching, unsafe 167 

Hoi low- ware moulding, the first known example of 5 

Hooks, description of 159 

Horn gates, use of 183 

Horses for reversing copes 161 

How to keep metal hot in dams 74 

Hydraulic cylinder conveniences for moulding 252 

Hydraulic cylinder moulding under difficulties 250 

Hydraulic cylinder, pattern and core-barrel for a 251 



Improvements in foundry appliances 134 

Inability of foremen 160 

Instructions for mounting " match plates " 159 

Interest rules and tables 365, 366 

Iron age. the 261, 263 

Iron-founding, process of 1 

Iron fouuder's art, evolution of the 1, 261 

Iron, gray, mottled, and while 315 

Iron oxide for annealing castings 304 

Iron smelting, the art of, known to the ancients 2, 261 

Iron, scripture evidences of working in. . . 1 

Iron sculpture, methods adopted by the ancients to produce.. . . 2 



3S4 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Iron, the science of filling moulds with molten 172 

Isiuglass, to take casts iu 288 

Italian sculpture 269 



Japanese fine art work 270 

Japanning castings 363 

Jupiter aud Hercules, ancient statues of 266 

L 

Labor saving devices in the foundry 8 

Ladles, dimensions for all sized 78 

Ladles, bow to construct geared 75, 140 

Lathe-heds, core lifting plate for 288 

Lathe-bed moulding, examples iu 237 

Lathe-bed, pattern for a 238 

Lifting handles, how to make 238, 241, 243, 248 

Lifting tackle 160 

Lining and repairing cupolas 53 

Liquid measure 3(i7 

Loam and green-sand work compared 2il6 

Loam mills . . . 9, 138 

Loam-moulding, change of method to save cost in 224 

Loam-moulds, method of stiffening 255 

Loam-moulds, vertically cast 223, 253 

Loam- work, binding and lifting long cores in. 225 

Loam-work, building critical cores iu 225 

Loam- work, sectional arrangements in 226.. 2T)3 

Long castings all from one end, dangers of runuiug 190. 219 

Lugs on loam plates. ... 168, 254 

M 

Machine and engine foundations, to mould 237 

Machines for moulding gear-wheels 142 

Mackenzie cupola 48 

Mackenzie pressure blower 19 



INDEX. 385 

PAOE 

Malleable cast-iron, the theory of 301, 305 

Malleable-iron castings 296 

Malleable-iron, sixteenth-century systems of producing 3 

Malleable-iron castings, annealing furnaces for 303, 304 

Malleable-iron castings, gates required for 300 

Malleable-iron castings, making moulds for 299 

Malleable-iron castings, melting iron for 300 

Malleable-iron castings, processes for annealing 303 

Malleable-iron castings, sofluess, flexibility, and specific gravity 

of 297 

Malleable iron castings, the proper quality of pig-iron for 298 

Machinery, the first castings for 7 

Manganese in cast-iron, influence of 29 

Main blast-pipe, diameter of 45 

Match plates, how to mount, etc 159, 300 

Measure of surface. 3fi8 

Medals, to take casts from 287 

Melting points of alloys 121 

Melting points of metals 119, 121 

Melting, science of 34 

Mensuration, definitions in 96 

Mineral wool, explanation of 355 

Mixing cast iron 22,315 

Mixing iron, the use of tanks for 317 

Modeller's clay, ingredients for making 290 

Modelling in clay, pattern 289 

Modelling in clay, instructions for 290 

Model or pattern, how in moulding statuary to save the 280 

Models of statues in plaster 271 

Modern improvements, foundries now supplied with 234. 250 

Modern moulding-machines 147 

Mortars, method of casting 195 

Mould, facility in closing a large green-sand 223 

Moulders, past and present 6 

Moulders, want of education amongst 219 

Moulding a four-chambered ventilating shaft 216 

Moulding, advanced practice in high-class 216 

Moulding, danger of generalizing the subject of 236 

Moulding-machines 9, 126, 147, 234 

Moulding machines, their utility discussed 148, 300 



386 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Moulding, past and present 216 

Moulding statuary in sand 277 

Moulding statues from plaster models 271 

Moulds, a handy device for separating 245 

Moulds for plaster casts, bees-wax, dough and bread-crumbs as. 284 

Moulds, lifting irregular-formed 1G5 

Moulds, to fasten chaplets to . . 209 

Moulds, to make elastic 288 

Multiplication of decimals 86 



N 

Natural gas as a fuel, the great value of 327 

Nelson monument, the 270 



O 

Open-sand cast ing 173 

Open-sand, fly-wheels in 173 

Open-sand moulds, incompetency of moulders to construct 173 

Open-sand plates, difficulty of casting , 174 

Open-sand plates, to successfully cast. 174 

Open-sand work, decreased cost for 176 

Outside runners and gates for loam work, how to arrange. . 193, 255 

Overhead trolley for conveying molten iron 8 

Overhead trolley system 129 

P 

Peat and turf as fuels 326 

Percentage in the foundry 113 

Phosphorus in cast iron, influence of 29 

Pickling, scaling and cleaning cast-iron 359 

Pig iron, bought and sold on analysis 27 

Pig iron, capacity of furnaces, 1740, for producing 3 

Pig iron, chemical substances found in 27, 315 

Pig-iron truck and foundry scales 135 

Piston blowers 15 

Pit-ramming, methods for obviating 145 



INDEX. 387 

PAGE 

Plaster blocks 10 

Plaster cast from a person's face, to take a 286 

Plaster core-boxes, bow to make 294 

Plaster for moulds or casts, bow to mix 282 

Plaster models of statues for tbe founder 271 

Plaster moulds, to prevent patterns from adheriug to 283 

Plate moulding aud plaster blocks 146 

Polygons, to find tbe area of 99 

Pneumatic cranes 129, 234 

Portable furnaces in olden times 4 

Pouring-basin, bow to construct a 182, 255 

Pouring castings, tbe art of 170, 173, 182, 255 

Pouring heavy castings 67, 68 

Pouring, to obtain tbe minimum of friction whilst 181 

Precious metals, scripture evidences of working in 1 

Pressure in moulds 218 

Puddling described 347 

Pythagoras, the great sculptor 265 

R 

Ramming chill car-wheels, the art of 312 

Refinery-furnace, description of a 346 

Refilling, puddling, shingling and rolling 346 

Reaumur's methods of making pig iron, 1722 3 

Regenerative furnace, Siemens 300, 304 

Remitting cast iron, effect of 28 

Repairing broken castings by burning 329 

Reverberatory furnace, charging-doors for 60 

lieverberatory furnace, charging the 63 

Reverberatory furnace, fuel for 62 

Reverberatory furnace, sand bottom for 63 

Reverberatory or air furnaces 55 

Revolving screen for mixing sand 137 

Risers, when to place, etc 191, 196 

Riveted cbaplets, inadvisability of usiug 212 

Rolling-mill, invention of the 7 

Rolls and sbafts, burning 342 

Roots' pressure blower 19, 20 

Roman bronze, mixture for 282 



388 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Round columns, how to run 1U1 

Hope can hooks 1 09 

Rope bitches, to 'make 167 

Ropes, description of 159, 168 

Rope tackle described 168 

Roiary blowers. 19 

Roughing and mashing rolls 349 

Riddles, screen, sliding, swinging, and revolving 135 

Rules for finding the weights of casiiugs 95 

Runner for open-sand plates 174 

Runners, heavy work 71 

Runneis, reasons for the superiority of drop 185 

Running pipes at the flanges 190 

Rust from cast or wrought iron, to remove 360 

Rusty studs, why we should avoid 200 



s 

Sand friction, experiments on 150 

Sand for statues 279 

Sand riddles, improved machine 135 

Saxon and Norman periods of sculpture 266 

Scales, improved cupola 134 

Scales, smithy and rolling-mill. 304 

Schiele's compound blowing fan 17 

Scotch irons, the requisite elements in 28 

Scrap, how to melt fine 32 

Scrap, how to melt massive pieces of 5/ 

Scrap pile, value of the 23, 3:$ 

Screw clamp for crane-hook 168 

Screw propellers 115 

Screw propeller, how our forefathers moulded the 8 

Screw propellers, improved methods of moulding 145 

Scripture lengths 367 

Scripture measures of capacity 368 

Sculptor and moulder, relationship of 270, 276 

Sculptor, reproducing in metal the work of the 261 

Sculpture, ancient schools of 263 

Sectional moulding for heavy green-sand woik 233 

Shackle, use of the 232 



INDEX. 389 

PAGE 

Shear- steel, single and double t 351 

Shear steel, the production of 351 

Shingling described 349 

Shrinkage, the cause of inequality in 179 

Shutters for dams, how to make and fit 73 

Siemens regenerative furnace 349, 351 

Signs in mensuration 82 

Silicon in cast iron, influences of 30 

Silicon, properties of 24, 25 

Silicon, W. I. Keep on 31 

Simpson's gear moulding-machiue, description of 143 

Single-spliced rope sling 169 

Slag in cupolas, how to manage the 52 

Slings, description of 159, 101, 1(55 

Smeaton's blowing-engine 15 

Smelting, Indian mode of 127 

Smelting in olden times 36 

Smelling, the ancients' skill in the art of 2, 261 

Soft and hard iron for burning 334 

Softening cast iron 359 

Soft castings, to produce 28 

Soldering gray cast iron 360 

Solidity, measures of 369 

Special preparations, cases requiring 101 

Specific gravity of metals and other substances 120, 125 

Spiral drum, how to gate a 194 

Spiral post, to mould a 292 

Sponginess, how shrinkage causes 195 

Springers, use cf 207 

Spring chaplets, how to make and use 203 

Square columns, how to run 190 

Statuary, building copes for 275 

Statuary in cast iron, how to mould 276 

Statuary in sections, how to mould large 277 

Statuary, method of making small 280 

Statuary or modeller's wax, composition for 275 

S:atues, founding of 261 

Statuettes, busts, etc. in plaster, to make 285 

Stat ue of Liberty, New York Harbor 277 

Steam hydraulic cranes 129 



390 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Steel, burning on to 837 

Steel, discovery by the Romans of making 2G2 

Steel, manufacture of , 350 

Stem chaplets, cast and wrought 204 

Stevens Institute, a good word for the 11 

Stewart rapid cupola 49 

Straw ropes, machine-made 140 

Slripping-plate, the 10, 147 

Studs and chaplets, an object lesson in 'J00, 258 

Stud plates, use of 222 

Studs and chaplets, danger from melting of 201 

Studs and chaplets, how to avoid using 198 

Studs and chaplets, how to wedge dowu 208 

Studs and chaplets, how to render harmless all 201 

Studs and chaplets, supporting great weights on 213, 281, 2"8 

Studs and chaplets, to prevent slipping in 201, 213, 223 

Studs, danger of melting cast iron 202 

Studs, explanation of the use of 198 

Studs for chilled car-wheel cores, improved 310, 818 

Studs, how to make wrought iron 202 

Studs, how to make light cast iron 202 

Sturtevant pressure blower 17 

Substances used for forming plaster moulds 2S3 

Sulphur casts of medals, etc 287 

Sulphur in cast iron, influence of 29 

Supporting studs 214, 281 

Swinging long cores, method of 253, 257, 259 



T 

Table of instructious for working the cupola 42, 43 

Table of ladles from 25 pounds to 16 tons capacity 78 

Table of weights, strength, melting points, specific gravity, etc. 118 

"Tabor" moulding-machine, description of the 152 

Technical schools, modelling taught in 289 

Technological schools, more substantial recognition of the foun- 
dry demanded in the 11 

"Teetor " moulding-machine, description of the 157 

Temperature, important that iron enter the mould at an even... ISO 
Tensile strength, of metals and other substances 119, 122 



INDEX. 391 

PAGE 

Testing bars, description of 122 

Testing chilled car-wheels 821 

Testing machines 122, 130 

Testing the nature and quality of cast iron 10, 33 

Theodorus of Samos 264 

Theory of chilling castings 315 

Thin covered plates, how to run 177 

Tinning 856 

Tinning iron pots, etc 358 

Tinning metal, Kustiliens. 357 

Tinning studs aud chaplcts 358 

Torsional strength of suhstances 120, 124 

Toughness of metals 120, 124 

Tracks and foundry trucks 131 

Tracks, uses of well- laid 8 

Transverse strength of metals and other substances. . . 120, 122, 123 

Tripod, illustrations and explanation of the 255, 258 

Tromp blower, description of the 37 

Troy weight 369 

Tumbling-barrel, exhaust 137 

Turubuckles 165, 166 

Tuyeres for cupolas 37, 46 



U 
Underground blast-pipes 89 

V 

Varnishes for iron-work 354 

Varnish for patterns 854 

Vent-pipe, anchoring cores by means of the 211 

Vents, how best to insure perfect 229 



W 

Wages table 373 

Washburn wheel 307 

Wax, forming gates and vents in 274, 291 



392 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Wax, how to pour plaster moulds with modellers 291 

Wax patterns, varnish for 292 

Wax thickness for statuary moulds 271, 2b0 

Wax used by modellers, ingredients of, aud how to make 292 

Weights and measures 367 

Weight of a cubic foot of metal 119, 121 

Weight of a cubic iuch of metal 119, 121 

Weight of balls, to find the Ill 

Weight of circular plates and circular solids, to find the 103 

Weight of cylinders, pipes, wheel-rims, columns, etc., to find 

the 103 

Weight of flat bottomed tanks, pans, etc., to find the 108 

Weight of pans with spherical or round bottoms, etc. , to find 

the 110 

Wheel arm, burning a broken 341 

Wheels, centre core-runners for 192 

Wheel-tooth, how to burn on a 336 

Wind-box, or chamber 39 

Wood-charcoal, value as a fuel of 326 

Worm-pinions on end, moulding 145 

Wrought and cast iron from steel, to distinguish 358 

Wrought iron, processes for manufacturing 346 



Y 

" Yieldiug platen " moulding-machine, description of the 155 

Z 
Zinc, cast iron, or brass, to scour 360 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

ffiffi 




